*Note author affiliations are from 2022
An Examination of the Current and Future Ethical Boundaries of Nanotechnology – PDF VERSION
Neha Basu1, Erika Flickinger2, Aarushi Mehrotra3, Brooke Ellison4
1BASIS Scottsdale, Scottsdale, AZ 85259, 2Saint Teresa High School, Decatur, IL 62526, 3Smithtown High School East, NY 11780, 4Center for Compassionate Care, Medical Humanities, and Bioethics, Health Science Center, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794
Background
In 1959, Richard Feynman introduced the possibility of nanotechnology in his lecture, “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” Feynman envisioned a future where materials are constructed molecule-by-molecule and machines can operate down to the atomic level.[1] Since then, his vision has become a reality – today, nanoparticles allow for targeted drug delivery. Nanotubes and nanocomposites can increase the strength of construction materials and help provide food for a growing world population.[2,3] Nanotechnology, defined as the study of materials with at least one dimension on the order of 1100 nanometers, has implications in all fields since design at the nanoscale level can be applied to all materials. Consequently, as nanotechnology continues to play a larger role in societal development, it is imperative to consider the ethical issues associated with this field. Proper implementation of nanotechnology could solve rising demands for energy, increase length and quality of life, and open up a new frontier of technological advancement. However, if ethical concerns are not taken into account, nanotechnology may present serious issues in the future. A notable example displaying the potential consequences of nanotech and materials science is asbestos – a mineral once praised for its resistance to fire but now revealed as a toxic carcinogen.[4]
Due to the rapid development of nanotechnology over the past few decades, much is uncertain about the effects and limits of this novel field. The field of nanomaterials specifically requires great caution since any new material developed in the lab could have dangerous qualities. Consequently, proper cost-benefit analysis and ethical concerns must be taken into account before new materials are deployed into society. To assess potential risks associated with nanoscale research, the Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering conducted a survey into the main benefits and drawbacks of nanoscience.[5] They affirmed the uncertainty clouding the future of nanoscience, claiming that ethical issues will depend on the applications of ongoing research. However, one thing is certain – at every step of nanotechnology research, scientists must assess whether their research will positively impact society or if it could have harmful impacts on the global population.
In this review, we overview the current ethical issues as well as our expectations for future ethical concerns in the field of nanotechnology. In the present, we believe that there are two major moral issues: the rapidly developing field of nanosurgery and the proper regulation of agricultural nanotechnology. We predict that, in the future, unequal access to nanotechnology and disposal of nanowaste will present serious ethical dilemmas.
Current Issues
Nanotechnology is already being used in a wide variety of fields, but the risks and ethics of their uses aren’t keeping pace with their development. One of the more controversial applications of nanotech is in surgery. Two surgical methods have been proven effective: one involving an atomic force microscopy (AFM) and a nanoneedle, and the other known as femtosecond laser surgery.
AFM works by having a nanoscale cantilever at the tip that scans over a surface, recording data about the obstacles it encounters. By using a nanoneedle instead of the normal AFM probe, researchers were able to accurately inject the nucleus of a single cell with the needle. Getting precise access to the nucleus of a single cell is key to being able to induce and control cell differentiation.
The other type of nanosurgery involves a near-infrared femtosecond (10-15 second!) pulse with enough energy to destroy the tissue at a very specific location in the cell. Because of the short duration of the pulse, surrounding tissue can heal without necrosis or an increase in temperature. Researchers have already used femtosecond infrared pulses to remove subcellular particles: a section of a human chromosome, microtubules, plastids, and axons, to name a few. The type of precision that comes on the nanoscale not only ensures that adjacent tissue doesn’t get harmed, but it also makes what used to be unthinkable procedures possible. According to risk assessments done by Ebbesen and Jensen, the benefits seem to outweigh the risks, especially since the current procedures are done on the microscopic level and diving deeper just allows for increased precision.[6]
The main ethical concern is the application of these nanosurgery procedures and technologies. Since nanosurgery has the potential to enhance human capabilities, if we as a race start changing our genes and our bodies with the vague superficial goal of improving ourselves, where does the line end? Who or what institution draws that line? These are the kinds of questions scientists have been grappling with ever since the structure of DNA was discovered. Now with the capabilities of nanosurgery, they need answers now more than ever.
Another ethical dilemma in urgent need of discussion and regulation is the use of nanotechnology in every step of food production. Agricultural practices have the potential to use nanotechnology in a variety of ways: everything ranging from targeted delivery of nutrients, pesticides, and fertilizers to micromanaging soils to nanosensors in livestock for animal tracking to precision genetic modification. Nanotech also has the potential to be used in food manufacturing and processing. For example, using fibrillar protein aggregates to synthesize meat and using nanosieves for nanofiltration. Nanomaterials are already being used in food packaging, with benefits including extending the freshness of food, preventing contamination, regulating the passage of gases through packaging, improving biodegradability, strengthening packaging to reduce waste, detecting toxic proteins, and more. Nanosensors can be implanted into packaging with buttons changing color to detect variables such as ripeness, the presence of pathogens, and whether or not the food is being stored in optimal conditions. But perhaps the most intriguing use of nanotechnology is nanoencapsulation. In this, certain ingredients are encapsulated in a nanomaterial membrane which interact with a specific part of the digestive tract. This ensures that the ingredient is protected from digestive juices until it reaches the portion of the body that allows for maximum (or minimum) absorption. Nanoencapsulation can be useful for increasing the effectiveness and uptake of vitamins and oral vaccines, but it can also be used to selectively decrease the uptake of cholesterol and fats from fatty foods. However, with possibilities come risks. Many are growing more hesitant about nanotechnology being used in their food. They have a right to be. Nanotechnology is already being commercially used without their knowledge and without any knowledge about possible risks, similar to the state of GMO foods twenty years ago. Unlike genetics though, not much is known about how properties of materials change on the nanoscale. Nanoparticles can cross biological barriers, including the blood-brain barrier, and each step up the food chain results in the accumulation of these nanoparticles in the body. The fertilizer may start out with a very low concentration of nanoparticles, but the nanoparticles accumulate in the plants which need fertilizer year after year. The nanoparticles accumulate further in livestock that need ten times their weight in plants, and even further in humans. Nobody knows what the acceptable toxicity level for these nanomaterials is. What if these nanomaterials become too effective? Most of these nanomaterials are produced in the hope that they are more effective than what’s currently being used, but a more effective pesticide or fertilizer or soil enhancer could destroy the environment with its unnatural longevity. Right now, many of these concerns are what-ifs. It’s crucial to study them closely before they become what-nows.[7]
Future Issues
The rapid development of nanotechnology presents inspiring opportunities regarding aid for third world countries. Water filtration, medical devices, and agricultural advancement are all opportunities of improvement that can be provided by new nanotechnology.[8] However, the process of introducing new technology to less developed countries brings to light new ethical barriers as well as a further growing gap between developed and undeveloped countries.[9] Imbalance within the nanotechnology field can be seen through the timeline and origination of the first nanotechnology labs throughout the world. Countries rated highly on the United Nations Human Development Index (UN-HDI) such as China, Japan, and the United States have already created a tremendous gap in nanotechnology development between themselves and under-developed countries.[10] China’s first nanotechnology laboratory was established in 1990 which was followed closely by Japan in 1995.[11] The United States held an equally early introduction to nanotechnology, with nanotechnology companies developing by the early 1990s.[12] However, there are still African countries with no current nanotechnology labs or intention of pursuing nano-development. And while the ability for advanced countries to provide under-developed countries with new nanotechnology devices will provide improvement in the quality of life, the imbalance in technology advancement may create a larger divide between poor and rich countries.[13] Ethical concerns also appear within the nanotechnology field with the risk of providing less developed countries with under-tested nanotechnology.9 However, this possibility is refuted. With the development of new nanotechnology, nanoscience regulations adapt as the field progresses and organizations such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are responsible for creating guidelines for the application of each new material. Nanotechnology presents ethical concerns in relation to its introduction as aid within third world countries, and their inability to progress alongside developed countries as the field of nanotechnology grows.
As mentioned before, nanotechnology’s potential for higher function in any given commercial field is adequate motivation for increasing nanotechnology production. For perspective, the global nanotechnology market in 2019 was estimated to be worth 8.5 billion dollars USD with a compound annual growth rate of 13.1% from 2020 to 2027.[14] The result of this motivation to create more of a superior material not only manifests in an increased quantity of nanomaterials created, but also in an increasing amount of waste generated by this production.[15] Furthermore, handling nanowaste presents unique challenges for each material because of the hazardous potential of nanoparticles; therefore, recycling procedures have become more expensive and difficult for companies. While the process of generating waste is an issue, nanowaste also involves potentially hazardous waste. Careful examination of biocompatibility and potential hazard must be conducted for each manufactured nano particle that will eventually be discarded. This brings to light new categories of ethical conflict within the nanotechnology field such as nanotoxicity and ecotoxicity.[16]
Conclusion
It is clear that the role of nanotechnology in society will only deepen over time. Whether it be in surgery, agriculture, ultra-small devices, or several other implementations, they are in every aspect of our lives. To gain more perspective on the opportunity nanotechnology brings, as well as the constraints it faces, we spoke to Dr. Nadya Mason – a professor in physics at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. She offered a wide viewpoint of the subject, acknowledging the risks involved in the nanotechnology field though it presents equally promising developments. While these nanotechnological advancements generally improve the standard of life, the increasing prevalence of such small devices presents several risks, including scarcity of required resources, toxic waste, and even the abuse of personal data collected by abundant nanodevices. Currently, we believe that the most pressing issues are nanosurgery, specifically whether to limit its potential, and toxic nanoparticles in the food production industry. Controversy over the use of GMOs and pesticides, which have been linked with cancer and environmental destruction, complicates whether nanotechnology in agriculture is truly benefitting society. We are further concerned about future unequal access to nanotechnology between developing and developed countries and disposal of nanowaste. This is a concern shared by Professor Mason, who recognized how the imbalance in nanotechnology advancement could lead to further inequality between rich and poor countries. Because of its transformational nature, nanotechnology must be shared between countries in order to preserve peaceful international relations and prevent the widening of developmental divides. Additionally, the increasing use of nanotechnology in turn causes the mass production of possibly toxic nanowaste. Nanoparticles, as seen through asbestos, can irritate lungs and be toxic if even relatively inert nanomaterials accumulate in the body. However, throughout all of the ethical boundaries, nanotechnology remains a promising development to provide aid and advancement to people all around the world. In conclusion, as nanotechnology improves numerous fields throughout the world, the ethical concerns for both the present and future of nanotechnology are important to observe and discuss.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Garcia Summer Program at Stony Brook University as well as the guidance of Dr. Brooke Ellison and Dr. Nadya Mason.
References
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