*Note author affiliations are from 2022
*Images only viewable through PDF version
Hannah Saks1, Angela Sun2, Emily Zhou3, Brooke Ellison4
1Walt Whitman High School, Huntington, NY 11743; 2Lord Byng Secondary, Vancouver, BC V6R 2C9 Canada; 3The Harker School, San Jose, CA 95129, 4Center for Compassionate Care, Medical Humanities, and Bioethics, Health Science Center, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794
*Editors: Lillian Sun, Junsang Yoon
Abstract
In this fast-paced, modern society, one cannot overlook the revolutionary impact science and technology have on the lives of individuals and global relations at large. In this solution-based, comparative study, we investigate the impact science and technology have on the six main areas of international development: poverty, government, environment, security, social/gender inequality, and education. Aligning with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, we will be comparing the United States and Afghanistan in the context of the six aforementioned areas. Through these six areas of focus, we find many similarities and differences between the two countries, and we discuss possible solutions and improvements to flaws we find in the policies of the two countries.
- Introduction
Over the last decade, the turbo-charged advancement of science and technology on the global level has enhanced and changed the tract of international development.[1,2] In this paper, we define technology and the internet as the use of knowledge for practical goals, while science is the methodical study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world via observations and experiments.[3] Thus far, it can be concluded that the long-term goals of science and technology enhancement should be in line with a country’s plans for national development. However, we do acknowledge that during the process of internationalization and development of science and technology, we may arrive at points of conflict between traditional cultural norms and new contemporary values.[4]
As modern science and technology pave the way for multifunctional devices, providing platforms for easy-access communication and fast-forwarding globalization, many may recognize the importance of utilizing and understanding the impact of these innovations and discoveries.[5] Science and technology have revolutionized our lives by placing resources and information at our fingertips, enabling the large-scale publication of knowledge. Its role, however, expands far beyond the sharing of information; improvements in science and technology can positively impact the national security and social stability of countries while sustaining the growth and efficiency of the national economy. The build-up of science and technology is also crucial to the growing interdependence of the world economy, for both developed and developing countries.[4] The emphasis on science and technology for reducing the gap in quality of life—the measurement of health, comfort, and happiness—is another factor that cannot be overlooked.[6]
International development is a broad concept that includes the varying levels of economic and human development on an international scale. As its wording suggests, the study of “international development” is formed from the basis of “development”, denoting the notion of change throughout time.[7] The main driver behind international development is the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established in 2015 by the United Nations (UN). The SDGs expand on the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were created in 2000 to “fight poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and gender inequality”. The SDGs is a 15-year agenda detailing worldwide development; it is split into 17 distinct goals that each provide a shared plan for addressing development issues and enhancing human rights.[8] The 17 goals are: no poverty; zero hunger; good health and well-being; quality education; gender equality; clean water and sanitation; affordable and clean energy; decent work and economic growth; industry, innovation, and infrastructure; reduced inequality; sustainable cities and communities; responsible consumption and production; climate action; life below water; life on land; peace, justice, and strong institutions; and partnerships to achieve the goals.[9] With the UN as the key figure in the creation of the SDGs, they were devised and adopted by all 193 member countries in the UN.[8]
The study of international development looks to find solutions to improve current affairs and society at large, with an additional focus on individual lives.[10] Consequently, gaining a thorough understanding of international development is critical to improving the national and global policies of countries as individuals and unities. Programs focusing on international development provide expertise and knowledge to support people and governments across the globe, helping countries in their efforts to end poverty, strengthen human rights, and build resilient, democratic societies all while advancing global security and stability. [8]
Aligning with the United Nations’ goal to “end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030,” the aim of our solution-based, comparative study is to compare the United States and Afghanistan.[10] In the context of the two countries, we will be investigating the six main areas of international development: poverty, government, environment, security, social/gender inequality, and education. Upon presenting our findings, we will propose possible solutions to improve any weak areas and facilitate greater international development.
As previously detailed, the countries compared in this paper are the United States and Afghanistan. The United States is one of the top nations in the world, with a bustling economy and dominant military power. As a result, the United States is one of the leaders in global development as exemplified by its key contributions to the creation of the Sustainable Development Goals. Moreover, the US’s impact extends even beyond SDG efforts; the United States also greatly impacts the cultural aspect of international development, as expressed in the arts such as music, television, and dance. [11]
Afghanistan is a country in South Asia, officially known as the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Compared to the United States, Afghanistan has a considerably smaller economy, population, and military power. As a war-torn country, the politics in Afghanistan are mainly controlled by North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries, particularly the United States. [12,13]
The United States and Afghanistan both are very representative countries with particularly unique circumstances. As a prominent example of a developed nation, the United States has a highly advanced economy with rapid science and technological development compared to other nations. On the other hand, as a developing nation, Afghanistan is placed in a drastically different position in terms of its economy and science and technological development. By comparing these strikingly different countries, we hope to gain a more in-depth and well-rounded understanding of policy-making for international development in different circumstances and analyze the pros and cons of both countries to formulate solutions.
Aside from the abstract, we have organized this paper into six body sections alongside this introduction, a discussion, and a conclusion. After this introduction, we will begin the comparative study of the United States and Afghanistan in the six areas of international development: poverty, government, environment, security, social/gender inequality, and education. In these six sections, we will not only provide the essential information needed to understand the differences in policy-making but will also provide concrete data and our own reflections. Throughout the sections, we will bring new, adaptive reasoning concluded from our investigations. Building on this, we will compare the pros and cons of specific examples from our six areas of interest to offer unique improvements and changes to the current situation regarding the impact of science and technology on international development.
- Results
2.1 Poverty
Although the meaning of poverty may vary for different groups of people, the standard understanding is that poverty causes a person to be unable to meet the necessary standards for living. Science and technology have been proposed by many to be the generational solution to poverty; however, the effects of science and technology are also controversial as to whether or not it may broaden the gap between social classes.[14]
In the United States, data collected from the 2019 U.S. Census Bureau’s Current Population Report shows that 10.5% of the country’s population (around 34 million Americans) are considered to be impoverished. This number is larger in the children population, with a poverty rate of 14.4%; for people 65 years and older, the poverty rate is 8.9%.[15] However, due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 statistics reported by The Bureau of Labor Statistics show an increase in unemployment, with an estimated 14% of working Americans losing their jobs because of the COVID-caused economic recession between February 2020 and May 2020.[16]
Current data from the Urban Institute projections as of June 30, 2020, using the ATTIS model, show the projected poverty rate for the year 2020, dependent on pandemic policies. Science and technology used by the Urban Institute through the ATTIS model show a 3.2% decrease in the 2020 projected poverty rate with pandemic response policies compared to the projected poverty rate without pandemic response policies.[16] Thus, science and technology help us demonstrate the significance of policy-making and government programs aimed at resolving poverty.
During the pandemic, the main solution to fighting pandemic-induced poverty is the expansion of the social safety net—government programs to help the poor. Government policies and programs such as the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, enacted in March 2020, boosted the federal-state unemployment insurance system (UI) by $600 every week until its expiration date in July 2020.[17] Other similar programs implemented before the pandemic include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Medicaid.[18] By pairing government programs with science and technology, governments can increase the efficacy of humanitarian efforts.[14] In addition, science and technology promote the sharing and publication of knowledge, encouraging easy access to information and reducing the unequal distribution of information across different social classes. This is a very important factor in reducing poverty since equal access to knowledge offers vulnerable groups the invaluable opportunity to education, skills-learning, and the expansion of one’s intellectual property. Thus, the impoverished can develop the appropriate tools to escape the cycle of poverty.
The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is one of the countries in the world that is largely impacted by poverty, with the turbulent circumstances of the country exacerbating this issue. As of 2018, 54.5% of the population—nearly half of its population—lives below the national poverty line, according to the Asian Development Bank.[19] Table 1 supports the aforementioned argument.
Table 1. Core Indicators of Afghanistan Using Data and Statistics from the Asian Development Bank
Note. From “Basic 2020 Statistics,” by Asian Development Bank, 2020, Statistics and Data Innovation Unit, p.1. Copyright 2020 by CC BY 3.0 IGO.[20]
Policies in Afghanistan that aim to reduce poverty mainly focus on investing in human development and assistance from foreign countries and independent organizations.[21] The United States is one of the main sources of foreign aid for Afghanistan; however, as of March 2020, the United States has announced that it would be cutting $1 billion from its foreign aid policies to Afghanistan. Nevertheless, independent organizations such as the Afghan Women’s Network, the largest organization of Afghan Women, support a large variety of humanitarian work in the country in a multitude of regions, focusing mainly on women and refugees in communities.[22]
Science and technology in Afghanistan have similar benefits to those present in the United States, such as encouraging the equal distribution of knowledge across social classes and providing opportunities to those in poorer communities. In addition, science and technology promote fast and direct communication, allowing independent organizations and nonprofits to gain easier access to the live events occurring in the country. As a result, this also protects the public and the government, allowing immediate response in different regions.
2.2 Government
Government plays a critical role in the creation of policies in a country, directly impacting international development. International development can be coined as the collective effort by governments across the globe to resolve dire issues in the world and to improve the quality of life for vulnerable groups.[23,24] Furthermore, a bi-directional causality exists between the government and the science and technology of a country. Progressive, modern improvements in policies result in the advancement of science and technology, positively impacting society through the spread of sustainable, transformational technological tools and solutions.
In the United States, science and technology are cornerstones of the country’s role in international development.[25,26] As a country that incorporates federalism into its political system, the United States’ authoritative power is divided among the federal, state, and local governments. Although federalism promotes individualism and brings the concept of self-government closer to its people, the federalist system’s disadvantages are shown in the United States’ recent delayed pandemic reaction. The federalist system frequently leads to communication and organizational breakdowns. More specifically, the federalist system is one of the factors that contributed to the United States’ disorganized medical resource distribution, interstate travel guidelines, uncoordinated regional guidelines, and testing capacity.[27] Moreover, failure to address these consequences will negatively impact international development, since the United States is a major country and its policies and economy have a direct effect on global relations.
To resolve the multitude of disparities the federalist system may bring, we argue that science and technology is a modern and revolutionary solution. Science and technology advancement helps a country foster open, transparent, and accessible systems of governance throughout the world. In addition, coordination is easily attainable through the use of technological tools. However, with the progressive improvement and use of technology, we do acknowledge the increasing potential of data loss due to ill-intentioned hackers. One possible way to prevent this is to hire white hat hackers that can find possible loopholes in databases and fix them as prevention precautions.
Similarly, in Afghanistan, science and technology have a significant impact on the government system. Afghanistan is formally known as a republic with three branches of governing entities—the executive, judicial, and legislative branches. The executive branch is represented by the President while the highest level of the judicial branch is the supreme court, and the House of Elders and the House of People make up the legislative branch.[28]
Compared to the United States, Afghanistan has considerably less manpower and resources designated to its humanitarian efforts. Thus, foreign aid and support from independent organizations make up important aspects of society. Science and technology can benefit the international relations that Afghanistan relies on by enabling easier communication, allowing quicker response and more flexible support. More importantly, advancements in science and technology encourage the humanitarian-development in Afghanistan and guide the public as well.
2.3 Environment
Science and technology tread on a fine line between being able to help the environment whilst also causing catastrophic disasters. Technology has led to vast improvements in satellite imaging of environmental and agricultural practices. However, in the 21st century, we are constantly reminded of the reality of global warming. According to the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, “climate change makes many existing diseases and conditions worse, and it helps pests and pathogens spread into new regions”.[29] Environments are being threatened by overcrowding, water pollution, waste, and lack of biodiversity. Although beneficial in many cases, technology is a large contributor to the pollution causing these catastrophes.
The United States, in particular, produces a lot of waste. In 2020, The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported that about 68 million tons of pollution were emitted into the nation’s atmosphere.[30] A substantial amount of this pollution came from new technology. The United Nations has stated, “that producing the average computer and monitor requires 530 pounds of fossil fuels, 48 pounds of chemicals and 1.5 tons of water”.[31] Going through production and shipment requires substantial amounts of materials that produce water waste and CO2 emissions. As the industrialization of developed countries furthers, there is a growing concern for environmental degradation.[32] Santa Clara County, California, a major site for the production of semiconductors for computers, “has more EPA-identified toxic waste sites, called Superfund sites, than anywhere else in the USA”.[31] This toxic waste can leak into drinking water and affect the quality of water in that area, possibly harming people’s health. Along with the toxic waste from technology, technology production emits CO2 emissions that contribute to the greenhouse effect of CO2 not escaping the atmosphere and thus heating the planet. According to the EPA, “in 2019, the electricity sector was the second-largest source of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for 25 percent of the U.S. total”.[33] Air pollutants degrade the environment by impacting wildlife, water quality, and global warming. To slow emissions, pollutants, and waste, regulatory laws should be enacted.
In comparison to the United States, Afghanistan is impacted relatively less by pollution directly derived from technology. In Afghanistan’s case, technology can actually help their environment. Afghanistan is topographically mountainous and landlocked, with not much access to natural resources. This geographic placement challenges infrastructure and prevents Afghanistan from gaining access to materials. Furthermore, mining in Afghanistan is very difficult as individuals are required to have a license and permission from the government that is extremely hard to obtain.[34] In some scenarios, the government has no power over the land, exposing the risk of Taliban or Afghan insurgents raiding the land. In 2008, satellite imaging was introduced to help map out the environment, avoid high-conflict environments, and create substantial development of natural resources.[35] Using HyperSpectral Imaging, the Afghan government imaged over 70% of Afghan land, which is equivalent to 400,000 square kilometers.[36,37] The mapping of Afghanistan’s mines will assist in growing their international trade and GDP. Furthermore, when a country grows economically, it can further develop on a global platform. In 2008, the Afghan government signed a lease with the Chinese government to mine the Aynak mine in exchange for a $3 billion investment deal. The mine is estimated to be the second-largest copper deposit in the world. It was also reported that the Aynak mine could generate up to $390 million yearly for Afghanistan, leading to possible increases in available jobs.[35] In combination with satellite imaging, Afghanistan can lease additional mines and make more investments.
The technology used by Afghanistan can help protect the environment while also progressing Afghanistan’s development. This positive contribution contrasts with the United States’ relationship with technology as now, there is ‘too much’ technology contributing to pollution and waste. Nevertheless, both countries need to have regulations put in place. In the United States, mandates and incentives should be imposed to regulate production and increase the production of eco-friendly technology. In Afghanistan, though this area of interest is a newly-developing topic for the country, laws must be made to prevent the abuse of the mines and mitigate risks of possible disasters.
2.4 Security
Science, technology, and innovation (STI) can boost a country’s development and economic growth. Technology plays a significant role in shaping national security and military operations. Focusing on technology and innovation will strengthen public and private sectors, allowing for more investors and a greater GDP. Widening a country’s communication and development will also help them “achieve a more competitive position at the global level”.[38]
When it comes to security on a global level, it’s a race. The United States is the leading nation in global development due to its intense focus on national military and security. Nevertheless, each country is trying to develop militaristic technology to outcompete each other and become the leading nation. While the U.S. remains at the top in terms of innovation, when looking at data over the years from 1962-2017, there was a 68% decline in research and development expenditures as a percentage of the Federal Budget. As a result, most of the newly emerging technology seen nowadays is being brought up through the commercial sector. This makes it difficult to identify which technology has true implications for national security. With technology emerging so quickly in a commercial environment, regulations and laws also cannot keep up. This can create both positive and negative responses. On one hand, the regulations may be unable to identify militaristic technology used for national security. The technology can also be bought by private entities or by buyers with malicious intent, putting communities in danger. On the other hand, the regulations may prevent technology from being implemented altogether as it may violate one section of a federal agency’s regulations but pass another. For example, the definition of security technology can be interpreted differently. The Department of Treasury promotes a freer market for economic growth and stability; therefore, they want looser control of technology. In the eyes of the Department of Defense (DOD), their goal is obtaining national security to protect the nation’s citizens, leading to stricter control of technology.[39] New regulations are needed to control the threat of technology whilst also allowing for innovation to promote economic growth.
Technology can help an economy thrive, but can also collapse a nation’s defense systems. One of the most advanced countries, in terms of military strength, could come crashing down at the hands of a keyboard. In the United States, cyber-attacks have become increasingly prevalent, with 1,001 documented data breaches in 2020.[40] Breaches of agency data can cause national grid blackouts, impact communication, and harm military operations, all of which are breaches to national security. As a result, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) anticipates a 28% growth between 2016 and 2026 of information security analysts to protect national data.[41] In December of 2020, a massive breach of data left US government and private networks vulnerable to attacks, including the Department of Homeland Security, the Pentagon, and the Treasury Department. Reportedly, the Russian Intelligence Agency attached malware to SolarWinds, a software company used by many federal agencies and thousands of companies to monitor computer networks. The Commerce Department’s National Telecommunications and Information Administration was severely affected. Furthermore, information that influenced internet policy was breached, which is a national security risk.[42] Although beneficial in promoting innovation, economic growth, and development, technology can lead to cyber-attacks and data breaches that threaten national security.
From a foreign perspective, the collapse of Taliban control after 2001 exposed how far behind the new Afghanistan Republic was in the sector of information and communications technology (ICT). With the development of the new republic, there has been exponential growth in the demand for technology. According to the United States Agency for International Development (USAID,) as of September 2012, 20 million Afghans have mobile subscriptions out of a population of 30 million.[43] The same report in 2012 stated that the telecommunications field averaged around $139.6 million in revenue, making up more than 12% of the total government revenues.[44] Although user demand is high for more technology and innovation in Afghanistan, many investors are hesitant about funneling money into a developing country because of the potential security risks and uncertainties. Especially with US troops departing Afghanistan in 2021 and the Taliban gaining more control, the hostility and uncertainty of the country presents a dangerous scenario.
As the Taliban starts to grow stronger, they have begun targeting Afghanistan’s technology. The main reason behind these attacks is because in Afghanistan, technology is essentially power; by destroying Afghanistan’s technology, the Taliban strives to dismantle the Afghan government’s power. In the past month of July, “Taliban fighters blew up fiber optic devices and system equipment in Herat province’s Islam Qala.” This attack left many without internet connection for days. The country’s national power supplier, Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat (DABS), stated, “In the last six months, 39 electricity pylons that bring imported power into Afghanistan have been damaged.” That is nearly 70% of the country’s electricity.[44] With so many attacks on its infrastructure and internet, Afghanistan’s small technology sector is being threatened. Unfortunately, the government has little money to fix that problem. Taliban occupancy is hindering Afghanistan from further developing economically and internationally. Consequently, Afghanistan misses out on production opportunities that can boost its economy.
Although the internet provides its advantages for Afghan security and international development, with lenient cybersecurity laws, the internet and modernized technology pose real threats to Afghan national security. Similar to the United States, the Afghanistan government was hacked by a Chinese group through phishing emails that “posed as the Office of the President of Afghanistan and targeted the Afghan National Security Council (NSC)”.[45] The hacker group was even able to get a hold of confidential documents. With the internet on the rise in this developing country, national security is persistently at risk with the few laws and protocols being put in place. There are many vulnerabilities in the way Afghanistan handles cybersecurity, threatening the overall national security.
2.5 Social/Gender Inequality
Social inequality centers around the broad idea that there are certain groups of people in society who carry relatively more burdens than other groups, hence creating an imbalance in the social status of individuals. Though social inequality encompasses many aspects including access to health care, voting rights, or housing, this study aims to investigate the proliferation of gender inequality between the US and Afghanistan. There are many measurements of inequality, such as the Gender Inequality Index (GII), which measures the inequalities between men and women in many areas, including economic status (a higher GII in the range of 0 to 1 signifies greater inequalities.) Figure 1 provides a visual comparison of the GII of the US vs. Afghanistan vs. the average around the world in 2011.
Figure 1. A Comparison of the Gender Inequality Indices (GII) of the US, the World Average in 2011, and Afghanistan (Data courtesy of “Human Development Report 2020,” 2020, Human Development Reports. Copyright 2020 by United Nations Development Programme.)
Though the US and Afghanistan have vastly different results for the GII and other measurements, gender inequality is no less of a problem in both countries.[46] Gender inequality focuses on the unequal access to resources between females and males.[47] Specifically, in science and technology, gender inequality is rampant; girls consistently have less access to higher education in the science and technology areas, and girls statistically have significantly less participation in science/technology courses such as AP Computer Science.[48] Nevertheless, the question of whether advancements in science and technology harm or help gender inequality remains.
The United States has dealt with the problem of gender inequality for years. Though the participation of women in the labor force has slowly increased over the past few years, only 24% of women make up the total number of CEOs in the US, and women who work full-time only earn 80.5% of men who also work full-time.[49,50] In science, a recent study has found that males receive 30% more citations for their published scientific articles than women. These inequalities highlight the underrepresentation of women in many aspects of society, and though there seem to be improvements being made, the United States still faces a significant gender gap.[51]
Science and technology are crucial to America’s economy; numerous efforts have been made to increase societal participation in scientific fields to establish more solid pathways leading into science. However, science, particularly fields such as physics and mathematics, has traditionally been seen as a male-dominated field. Typical stereotypes like these are major factors that contribute to gender inequality because they easily affect young girls’ motivation to continue in a field where they fear they cannot succeed as a woman.[52]
But, not all science and technology lead to negative effects on gender inequality. A 2020 study examined the effect of differential employment exposure on the gender wage gaps. The researchers defined differential employment exposure as the shifting of jobs while holding all occupational wages constant. Essentially, more technology leads to certain types of jobs that are based on rules and are easier to be translated into automated work to have less manual labor, leading to lower employment rates. However, this shift towards more automation consequently causes raised employment rates in jobs that involve more problem-solving and are hard to embed into technology. As such, even though the wages for the occupations are constant, the distribution of men and women amongst these occupations highly depends on the nature of that job, leading to the potential for the wages of men and women to change differently. The researchers found, though, that differential employment exposure decreased the gender wage gap, signifying that technological advancements provided more benefits for women compared to men. The reason behind this pattern was attributed to the fact that women are less at risk of having their jobs become automated; the study found that women exited jobs that were more susceptible to being automated quicker than men. Nevertheless, these results do not definitively imply that the gender wage gap has closed. Many other factors have to be considered, such as the comparative wages across employment opportunities, that can harm women and worsen the gender wage gap in the US.[53]
Similarly, gender inequality is a rampant issue in Afghanistan. Even though women comprise around 50% of Afghan’s population, the literacy rates for women in Afghanistan are one of the lowest in the world, and the country has a very unfavorable GII: 0.655. More than half of Afghan women experience violence, in the form of discrimination or abuse, from an intimate partner.[54] Reducing Afghan gender inequality is crucial to advancing their society, but the impact of science and technology on Afghanistan widely varies, similar to that seen in the United States.
Technology not only includes those related to scientific developments, but it also encompasses aspects such as phones and, particularly, the Internet. Afghan women can use technology to make their voices heard, shedding more light on their demands to reduce the gender gaps. Afghan women successfully used Twitter to communicate their goals for peace and justice with a U.S. Congressional hearing before, allowing for direct exchange to international policymakers that would not have been possible without technology. Furthermore, Afghan women were not only able to reach policymakers, but they were also able to spread the word to those around the world. Utilizing hashtags on Twitter such as #AfghanWomenWillNotGoBack, which was created by the Afghan Women’s Network, women were able to get their messages and stories trending. However, the power of technology is not limitless. Technology has been used against Afghan women to twist and distort their words; in fact, some have even gone as far as to use technology to edit videos of Afghan women to make it seem like they support the Taliban, hampering their efforts.[55]
2.6 Education
Education is the system of kindergarten to 12th-grade schools, as well as higher education, that allows teachers to mentor students.[56] Easy access to education can lead to many benefits, including less risk of falling into poverty and greater socioeconomic mobility. However, numerous factors hinder access to education, including lack of funding for educational institutions or tumultuous political states.[57] Furthermore, youth participation in schools around the world has been significantly hindered by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the UN, school closures in 2020 affected more than 90% of students worldwide, and 1.6 billion children were not attending school by April 2020.[58] As such, it’s crucial to understand the impact science and technology have on education in the United States and Afghanistan.
In the United States, access to education widely varies depending on one’s environment. Student debt is a major issue that turns students away from attaining higher education, and even at the local level, schools that receive relatively less funding compared to those located in wealthier areas have vastly different qualities of education.[59] Nevertheless, 25.1% of United States citizens 25 years or older earned a high school diploma in 2020, with 23.4% of those going on to receive bachelor’s degrees. Furthermore, more than half of the teachers around the nation reported the use of technology in their classrooms, and 81% of teachers stated that they highly value the role of technology in the classroom.[60] However, the use of technology within the educational realm continues to be debated.
Past studies have shown the benefits of using technology to facilitate education. Research has proven that greater access to technology in schools leads to improved academic outcomes compared to schools that choose not to incorporate technology. Furthermore, education that blends technology and in-person teaching produces better learning outcomes than education that only involves in-person teaching.[61] Technology has, in particular, been extremely crucial to education during the pandemic, with online applications such as Zoom experiencing drastic user growth. In extreme cases such as pandemics, technology has the power to connect students and teachers stuck at home, thus maintaining a leeway for continued education even during lockdowns. However, technology does have negative consequences that can obstruct education. According to a 2018 study conducted on high-school students in Los Angeles County, California, technology in schools can lead to an increased chance of developing some form of attention deficiency, such as ADHD.[62] Furthermore, technology can also lead to an increase in loneliness amongst students who use more than 6 hours of the Internet outside of school; this loneliness impacts their education, as they have higher chances of arriving late to school or even skipping class.[63]
The education scene in Afghanistan paints a different story. As a country that was wracked with conflict, education has taken a significant toll; only 38% of Afghan adults are literate, and less than 10% of Afghan children continue education until 12th-grade. These alarmingly low numbers, however, should not overshadow the slow progress of reform and recovery. From 2001 to 2013, the number of students who graduated secondary school increased from 10,000 to 266,000 pupils. Furthermore, from 2011 to 2015, the number of students who enrolled in public universities grew from 7,800 to 174,425. Though there have been significant improvements, Afghanistan still faces a large problem with education quality.[64]
To combat these issues, many organizations have kickstarted initiatives focused on using technology to Afghanistan’s advantage. The Asia Foundation, an international non-profit dedicated to helping Asian countries, began implementing technology to strengthen rudimentary skills. In particular, they created a mobile app that contained many elementary-school-level practice materials such as workbooks. It aimed to improve reading skills for students in grades 1-3 and has already been implemented in more than 90 classrooms. Another example of technology positively impacting Afghanistan’s educational development is an online mock exam. Mobile company UStronics created an online mock exam that mimics the real college entrance exam, containing thousands of practice questions and a handful of educational videos on specific topics. Though there has been no concrete data detailing this new technology’s impact, a survey amongst the students who received this low-cost opportunity presented overwhelmingly positive feedback. Despite these hopeful steps forward, access to technology largely depends on infrastructure and the availability of resources. Both a lack of internet or electricity can easily hinder the usage of these new technological advancements, but the future is promising with the momentum that The Asia Foundation and UStronics have created.[65]
- Discussion
Over the past few years, science and technology have continually proven to be essential for a country’s ability to flourish. The implications of advancements in science and technology extend far beyond the national level; international development is significantly impacted by these creations as well. In this comprehensive study, international development focuses on these six tenets: poverty, government, environment, security, social/gender inequality, and education. Each one of these aspects can be found in many of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, highlighting the importance of inspecting and evaluating the role science and technology play in these areas. Specifically, this paper takes a deep look into the United States and Afghanistan to compare how science and technology affect two countries with drastic differences in terms of culture, economy, and society.
As shown in the results, Afghanistan and the United States have many differences between each other, but also share some similarities, such as the variable effect of science and technology on social/gender inequality. However, solely examining existing statistics and creating conclusions based on them isn’t enough. As such, we propose a few solutions for stark problems in either the US or Afghanistan for each of the six topics (poverty, government, environment, security, social/gender inequality, and education):
The first two topics are poverty and government. Science and technology foster transparent, accessible, and modern policy-making in areas of international development, including poverty and government. Government programs that are aimed at resolving extreme poverty work to expand the social safety net. Prominent examples of such government programs include the CARES Act, SNAP, and Medicaid.[17,18] Statistics mentioned in this study have demonstrated the effectiveness of these programs. We propose increasing the involvement of the government in the scientific and technological areas to maximize the efficacy of humanitarian efforts. As part of our solution, we encourage the spread and use of modernized, contemporary systems such as digital public libraries. Digital public libraries reduce the unequal distribution of information across different social classes, helping lower poverty rates by offering vulnerable groups the opportunity to use knowledge to escape the cycle of poverty. Furthermore, this system of e-libraries can be operational in both the United States and Afghanistan due to the flexibility of its online location and the unlimited space e-libraries can have. Moreover, the databases in e-libraries can be shared across platforms, or even countries, and between non-profits, making knowledge even more accessible.
Concerning government systems, an increase in the use of science and technology for intergovernmental communications can reduce potential disparities in policy plans. We emphasize the need for science and technology for communication and live updates between independent organizations and support countries. As part of our solution, we propose the implementation of a nationwide software program or app as a form of direct communication between citizens and the government. Such advancements in science and technology can increase social security and citizen satisfaction. Moreover, countries such as the People’s Republic of China have already used similar apps during the COVID pandemic, and they found that these apps were effective in lowering the number of COVID cases.
Next, we want to focus on the environment and security. In the United States, technology is overpowering the environment, leading to the degradation of our atmosphere. To combat this, there must be further advancements in technology to avoid harmful effects and ameliorate previous ones. EPA put forth the Clean Air Act that helps cut down air pollution and toxic waste in the US.[66] The act promotes modern technology that can control pollution on a production scale. It requires that new facilities use clean production so that as cleaner facilities start to dominate the industrial sector, the country’s air pollution can go down. In areas that are unable to fulfill the EPA’s standards, factories must find an alternative way to achieve the lowest possible emissions rate. The EPA hopes to bring down air pollution and toxic emissions to create a safer environment for the United States. In Afghanistan, to ensure peace between insurgents and the Afghan government over mining natural resources, the UN proposes incentives for peacebuilding. They suggest evaluating actions through a peace and conflict assessment. Through this assessment, Afghanistan can improve its economic development and access to the environment while maintaining peace.[67]
In regards to national security, cyber-attacks are a constant threat to both the US and Afghanistan. Both countries need to impose stricter cyber laws to protect against data breaches. The Afghan Cyber Security Bill lays out the definitions of cyber crimes and procedures to effectively prosecute concerning existing criminal laws.[68] It includes a separate court for cybercrimes under the attorney general. Many call the plan overly ambitious, but with the number of cyber-attacks faced by Afghanistan’s government, it is needed to protect the country’s national security. The United States faces similar issues of federal agency data breaches by hackers. In May of 2021, the US President issued an Executive Order on Improving the Nation’s Cybersecurity. The order calls for the US to “improve its efforts to identify, deter, protect against, detect, and respond to these actions and actors.” It additionally calls for a partnership with the private sector to ensure safe digital infrastructure. On a federal level, the order wants to enhance software security and establish a cyber safety review board.[69] In both countries, the implementation of stricter cybersecurity laws can lead to drastic improvement of the safety of the nation and its people.
The last two are social/gender inequality and education. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) has already invested a lot of effort into reducing gender inequality; specifically in Afghanistan, they’ve begun working on stopping child marriage, creating more opportunities for girls to participate in education, providing equal access to healthcare, and many more.[70] Aside from these extremely beneficial measures, we propose creating more inclusive communities for young female students. Inclusive communities may involve all-female community members, knowledgeable faculty who can motivate the young girls to pursue their interests in STEM, or even small discussion circles to emphasize female power and determination, not traditional stereotypes. The purpose of providing these spaces is to allow young girls to comfortably express their passion in certain fields that have been ingrained in their minds as “male-dominant.” Science and technology come into play as they provide the ability to connect girls from around the world. Though our study focused on Afghanistan and the United States, we do not want to limit these inclusive communities to just these two countries. With technology, girls from around the world can share their struggles and victories, allowing for a fostering of a more positive mindset at a younger age. In terms of education, the World Bank has invested a lot of money into ensuring that under-resourced countries receive sufficient electricity and sustainable energy.[71] This effort will allow for easier access to technology. To add to the World Bank’s work, we propose hosting “technology-literacy” classes that can teach communities who may be unfamiliar with technology how to navigate and utilize technology to its full advantage. With these courses, underprivileged communities can have an opportunity to access services such as educational apps that can provide them with free education.
- Conclusion
In this solution-based, comparative study, we compared the United States and Afghanistan regarding the impact of science and technology on the six areas of interest as part of international development. These six areas are poverty, government, environment, security, social/gender inequality, and education. Throughout this paper, we elucidated the limits of our study, defined key terms, gave examples of effective and flawed policy-making concerning science and technology, incorporated data and statistics, compared the pros and cons of specific examples, and finally, formulated possible solutions in terms of the use of bi-directional causality of science and technology and international development. We were able to implement concrete reasoning while remaining unbiased and only concluding based on our investigations.
Through our proposed ideas on the next steps for areas of improvement, we hope to positively contribute to future international development not only in Afghanistan and the United States but also in other countries that face similar issues as the aforementioned countries. Only with small steps forward can significant progress be made, and with this study, we aim to provide those tiny steps that will allow for greater international development.
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