A painting depicting the battle of Zuma on October 19th, 202 B.C.E. Photograph retrieved from studentsofhistory.com
By Sean McClintock
The Second Punic War began when Hannibal Barca, Ancient Carthaginian General, marched toward Rome in 218 B.C.E. The goal of this move was to create a second war front that would tie up Roman armies that would have otherwise been sent to the front in Spain. The battle of Cannae was the third battle fought in this attack on the Italian peninsula and the most devastating to Rome. With Hannibal’s military genius, a decisive victory was achieved over an opposing army double his army’s size. This battle ultimately put Rome in danger and almost ended the Second Punic War in Carthage’s favor.
The First Punic War
The First Punic War (264-241 B.C.E.) started over a dispute between Carthage, Rome, and Syracuse about the Italian city of Messina. Under pressure from Rome, Syracuse brought itself out of the war early on. This left Carthage and Rome as the two factions left fighting for the majority of the conflict. Although Carthage started the war with an advantage through its stronger navy, Rome eventually built up its own navy and turned the war around both on sea and on land. As time went on both sides remained unwavering. Carthage sent a Carthaginian military commander named Hamilcar Barca to Rome to negotiate a peace treaty. This created resentment in Hamilcar who believed the war could still be won. Despite this, he helped create the treaty that ended the war. Rome was to be given the region of Sicily. Carthage was forced to pay war payments to Rome.[1] These payments caused issues between Carthage and the mercenary armies that were hired to fight Rome.
The Carthaginians supplemented its smaller military with bands of mercenaries. The mercenary army that helped Carthage throughout the First Punic War demanded payment for their services, regardless of the loss. Due to a lack of money from the large payments being sent to Rome, the Carthaginian government had no money to pay the mercenaries. This sparked the Mercenary War (240-238 B.C.E.), where bands of disgruntled mercenaries waged war against Carthage. Rome took advantage of this war by siding with the band of mercenaries, looking to crush Carthage even further. By the end of this conflict, Rome took Sardinia and Corsica from Carthage. The uneven treaty and land grab by Rome caused great resentment amongst Carthaginians, especially Hamilcar Barca who carried his hatred down to his son Hannibal Barca. Hannibal went on to make it his life goal to get revenge on Rome for Carthage.[2]
The Second Punic War and Victories for Carthage
With Rome’s continued territorial expansion, and Carthaginian resentment towards Rome, another war between the two seemed inevitable. The Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.E.) started as a result of another dispute between Rome and Carthage over the latter’s expansion into the Iberian Peninsula. Although a treaty was agreed upon between the two powers, it was quickly broken, due to Carthage’s movement into the Iberian Peninsula, and war was declared. Rome’s commanders believed most of the war would be fought in Spain and the new territories Rome had conquered in the Mercenary War and First Punic War. Because of this, Rome sent a large amount of its military to these regions thinking they were the easiest routes to invade Rome. This gave Hannibal Barca a chance to attack Rome via land. Hannibal easily defeated any resistance on the way to the Alps because Rome had not been prepared for a land invasion of its territory. This gave Hannibal Barca a chance to attack Rome via land. Hannibal passed through the Alps losing some of his army along the way, but maintained his army’s overall numbers by convincing disgruntled Gaul warriors to join his army. These Gallic warriors were in open revolt against the Romans and were happy to join Hannibal’s invasion. After Hannibal passed the Alps the Roman resistance grew stronger.[3]
A Roman army was sent to try to stop Hannibal at the River Trebia, located in the northern region of the Italian Peninsula. This army, led by Roman commander Tiberius Sempronius Longus, failed to stop the Carthaginians after falling into a trap set up by Hannibal and his army. Although the Roman army outnumbered their Carthaginian opponents, they were defeated by Hannibal’s careful planning of the trap he set by utilizing the terrain to his advantage. Hannibal’s army was still intact and continued towards Rome.[4] The next time Rome tried to halt Hannibal’s advance was at Lake Trasimene. Hannibal purposely raided Roman territory to draw another Roman army into battle. This new Roman army, under the command of Gaius Flaminius, was Rome’s second attempt at Hannibal’s attack in Italy. This second army met a similar fate to the first, ambushed by the Carthaginian forces. Many Roman soldiers fled into Lake Trasimene and drowned while attempting to swim away to avoid capture or being killed in battle. Rome would again be defeated by Hannibal’s tactical superiority.[5] With these two victories Hannibal caused 50,000 Roman casualties. Hannibal also convinced local Celtic tribes living in Roman territory to join his army.[6] The Battle of Cannae was Rome’s last attempt at defending it’s capital against Hannibal.
The Battle of Cannae
Much like in Lake Trasimene, Hannibal purposely forced the Roman army into a battlefield that gave him several advantages. Rome tried to avoid battle with Hannibal, realizing they couldn’t keep losing men at the rate they had been. Open battle was avoided, replaced by hit and run tactics to try to slow Hannibal’s advance. This forced Hannibal to attack somewhere that would draw another Roman army into open battle. Hannibal ultimately captured a supply depot in Cannae to attract the Romans so he could resupply his army. This location was positioned in a way that gave the Romans no other choice but to confront Hannibal in order to make their way to their territories further south. Rome sent a third army under consuls Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus to pursue Hannibal. This army was the largest Rome had ever assembled with 80,000 soldiers. Roman forces outnumbered the Carthaginians almost 2 to 1. Although Hannibal was outmatched, he did have 10,000 cavalry to Rome’s 2,500 cavalry, which became an important advantage.[7] Soon this large Roman army made camp around Cannae and prepared for the coming battle. Hannibal led them to land that helped him best utilize his outnumbered army. Hannibal had an uncanny ability to use the terrain of Cannae to his advantage. “Firstly, his army was deployed on hills, giving them a height advantage. Secondly, they had their backs to the prevailing winds, which were prone to kick up dust squalls and impair the vision of anyone advancing into it. Thirdly, but perhaps most importantly of all, the frontage was restricted.”[8] Hannibal gave himself another advantage by attacking the teams of Romans that had left their camp to collect water. Hannibal utilized these small raids for days, leaving the Roman army dehydrated in the coming battle.[9] All of these advantages played out perfectly in Hannibal’s favor.
When the battle began, the Roman army started by attacking Hannibal’s center. Hannibal’s center purposely gave ground and tricked the Roman infantry into pushing them further back. Then Hannibal’s army began their trap “The Gauls and Spaniards feigned a retreat, which left the two tips of African troops on the wings of the infantry to launch themselves at their flanks. As the African steamroller hit, the confused Romans were thrown closer together, unable to fight back.”[10] In addition to this, the Romans’ fighting abilities were also hindered by dehydration, due to the hot wind and lack of water before battle. Due to Hannibal’s army attacking the flanks of the Roman army, the Romans were forced into a crowded position that made it difficult to maneuver and defend themselves. Seeing this, Hannibal sent in his cavalry, who quickly wiped out the outnumbered Roman cavalry. As some Roman infantry began to retreat from the main formation, the Carthaginian cavalry came in and closed up the Roman rear. This left the Romans completely trapped and the battle turned into a bloodbath, with thousands of exhausted and cramped Roman soldiers killed. The battle went on until night time and counselor Paullus, trying to hold his army together, became one of the many mounting Roman casualties. Eventually Counselor Varro and the remainder of the Roman army fled the battlefield. With the Romans in retreat, Hannibal successfully defeated another army and inflicted 50,000 more Roman casualties. The loss at Cannae meant Rome’s last defense was gone and the capitol was left vulnerable.[11]
With news of the defeat reaching Rome from the surviving soldiers, the city grew into a panic. People fled, believing Hannibal would come and sack Rome. Although Hannibal did reach Rome, he chose not to attack the city due to his lack of siege equipment and the small size of his remaining army. While camping by Rome, Hannibal sent a potential peace treaty that was fair to both sides. Rome refused and in response Hannibal decided to move on and attack more of Rome’s territory to try and change their minds, but also to hunt for supplies. Hannibal captured Tarentum, a seafaring town in the southern region of the Italian peninsula, and ravaged the rest of the southern regions of Rome’s empire, while also gaining more allies from Roman territories. More of Rome’s allies sided with Hannibal, including Syracusans in Sicily and various city states throughout southern Italy. The foreign Greek nation of Macedon would also get involved, by offering supplies to Hannibal. This action ruined relations between Rome and Macedon and war started between them later on. Although Hannibal successfully defeated three of Rome’s armies and gained allies in Roman territory, a different Roman strategy would lead to Hannibal’s defeat.[12]
Rome’s New Strategy
Under the circumstances, Roman leadership began a new strategy towards the Carthaginian invaders as seen here “After the defeat at Cannae, Roman commanders reverted to avoiding battle with Hannibal’s army, while harassing it and limiting its freedom of movement. At the same time, other Roman armies attacked the disloyal cities and allies, too many in number for Hannibal to protect.”[13] Rome knew it could not directly defeat Hannibal but they had the ability to easily put down Hannibal’s new allies so they did not have the ability to help him or his army. The Roman military also began a scorched earth strategy. This destroyed towns and farms that Hannibal used to shelter and supply his army. Although this strategy left many loyal Romans homeless, this new war of attrition withered away Hannibal’s fighting ability and contained Hannibal in the south of Rome.[14] Because of this, Hannibal had to wait for reinforcements that never came, his army was no longer a threat to Rome. Hannibal was soon called back to Carthaginian territory to help against the fight in his home territory. With Rome winning a series of battles in Spain and North Africa, the tide had turned against Carthage. At the battle of Zama, Hannibal and the rest of the Carthaginian army were defeated, ending the Second Punic War.[15]
Rome was much harsher in the treaty to end the Second Punic War. Carthage lost much of its territory to Rome. Carthage’s military power was limited and it could not declare war without Rome’s consent. Additionally, Hannibal was to be handed over to Rome for custody. Although Hannibal went on the run, he was finally captured and killed 20 years after the war’s end. Rome now had a new place in the world as a conquering superpower. “Despite all the setbacks, Rome remained undaunted throughout, and emerged from the war with a dominant position in the central and western Mediterranean that its leaders would exploit in the following decades.”[16] Rome continued its expansion after the conclusion of the war with far less resistance due to Carthage’s weakened position. The last of Carthage would soon be destroyed in the third and final Punic War. This war saw the destruction of the city of Carthage and any hope of a revived Carthaginian Empire.[17]
Cannae went down as one of the bloodiest days in military history. With 50,000 casualties inflicted on Rome, this battle became one of Rome’s worst military defeats. Hannibal demonstrated that careful planning and surprise could improve an army’s odds in any battle. The ability to defeat an army double his size was a huge accomplishment for Hannibal and showed just how advanced his tactics were. Although Hannibal did not end The Second Punic War with a victory, he came very close and convinced Rome that a new strategy was necessary to stop him once and for all. Hannibal’s march on Rome and his decisive victory at Cannae made Hannibal go down in history as Rome’s greatest opponent and one of the most brilliant military minds of the ancient world.
Endnotes
[1] Mary, Boatwright et al.“The Beginnings of a Mediterranean Empire,” The Romans: From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 94–97.
[2] Ibid, pp. 98.
[3] Mary, Boatwright et al.“The Beginnings of a Mediterranean Empire” The Romans: From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2011, 100-104.; Nigel, Rodgers and l Dodge Fsa Hazel. “The Growth Of Empire 264-133 BC,” The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, Hermes House, 2021, 26
[4] Patrick, Hunt. “Battle of the Trebbia River | Roman-Carthaginian History,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 July 2014, www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Trebbia-River.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Patrick, Hunt. “Battle of the Trebbia River | Roman-Carthaginian History.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 July 2014, www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-the-Trebbia-River.; Hunt, Patrick. “Battle of Trasimene | Roman-Carthaginian History.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 July 2014, www.britannica.com/topic/Battle-of-Trasimene.
[7] Mary, Boatwright et al., 104.; R, Grant. “Cannae,” 1001 Battles That Changed The Course Of History, Chartwell Books, 2017, 60.; Jack, Watkins (editor). “Cannae 216 BC,” The Greatest Battles in History: An Encyclopedia of Classic Warfare From Megiddo To Waterloo, Amber Books, 2017, 54-55.
[8] Jack, Watkins (editor). “Cannae 216 BC.” The Greatest Battles in History: An Encyclopedia of Classic Warfare From Megiddo To Waterloo, Amber Books, 2017, pp. 54-55.
[9] R., Grant. “Cannae.” 1001 Battles That Changed The Course Of History, Chartwell Books, 2017,
[10] Watkins, Jack (editor). “Cannae 216 BC,” pp. 55.
[11] R., Grant, pp. 60.; Boatwright, Mary et al. pp. 104.; Watkins, Jack (editor). pp. 55.
[12] Patrick, Hunt. “Battle of the Trebbia River | Roman-Carthaginian History.”; Hunt, Patrick. “Battle of Trasimene | Roman-Carthaginian History,” pp. 58
[13] Mary, Boatwright, et al., pp. 104.
[14] Mary, Boatwright et al., pp. 104-105.; Rodgers, Nigel, and Hazel Dodge Fsa., pp. 27.
[15] Mary, Boatwright et al., pp. 108-109.
[16] Mary, Boatwright et al., pp. 109.
[17] Boatwright, Mary et al., pp. 123-124.