Photo of the poster, “We Can Do It! Rosie the Riveter.” Retrieved from the Library of Congress(www.loc.gov)
By Juliet Romano
The contributions that women made during World War II were crucial to both the American and German war effort and varied greatly in each country. From 1941 to 1944, the number of working women in the United States grew by a total of over eight million, while the number of women working in Germany in both industrial and domestic sectors remained at a steady fourteen million throughout World War II, which presents a stark contrast to employment rates amongst women in decades prior.[i] Throughout the 1930s until the end of the war, poster propaganda facilitated an unprecedented increase of women who entered the workforce. Prior to the outbreak of the second World War, factory jobs in the industrial field were exclusively filled by men, leaving women to tend to the more domestic work of homemaking. Organizing household affairs including cooking and cleaning, as well as tending to children were left largely to women and, thereby, keeping them out of the “public” sector and confined to the home. Between the United States and Germany, similarities in government-sponsored propaganda aimed towards women are evident. Amidst an atmosphere of total war, the unprecedented demands set by the war were incredibly pressing and wiped away nearly all traces of the two countries’ cultural differences regarding women’s roles in the war.
Throughout World War II, the need for assistance and support on all fronts by all citizens was a key factor in the production of propaganda. With a two-front war occurring in both western and eastern Europe within the European theater, countries such as Germany relied heavily on their citizenry to aid in their fight. During this time, American and German propaganda sought to encourage citizens’ active involvement in the war effort. Propaganda in both the United States and Germany during this time had the job of persuading citizens to become involved in the war effort. For men aged eighteen to forty-five, this primarily meant enlisting into the armed forces and being deployed overseas for active duty. For American and German women, however, propaganda at this time urged them to join the war effort in different ways by encouraging women of both nations to fill vacant jobs previously held by men, specifically in weapons manufacturing. Organizations at the local and national levels encouraged women to participate directly through civilian protection groups or military-run operations, such as the Reichsluftschutzbund and the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps. Propaganda offered women several ways to support the war effort from their homes that did not involve working in the defense industry. Growing victory gardens, running clothing and paper drives, and becoming active participants amidst the heightened geopolitical climate of total war all became ways in which poster propaganda encouraged American and German women to contribute to their nations’ war effort from home.
Once the onset of conflict began, women in both the United States and Germany quickly departed from their roles within the domestic sphere and entered the war effort in the public sector. Unlike the limited number of non-domestic jobs that were offered to and filled by women prior to World War II, women’s roles expanded greatly due to the conscription of men into the armed forces, which then brought women into uncharted industries. At the same time women entered these new fields, both American and German propaganda encouraged their women to aid the war effort on the domestic front as well. Although the role of women in the public workforce was crucial to both nations’ success, the industrial sphere was not the only place in which American and German women were encouraged to participate. Propagandist posters depicting the various ways in which women of both nations could contribute to the war circulated throughout the public sphere and successfully mobilized millions to join the war effort. Without these women and their contributions, the outcome and impact of the second World War as we know it would have differed drastically.
Figure 1. Ludwig Hohlwein, Frau im Luftschutz, 1936, print poster, German Propaganda Archive, In American Experience, by Public Broadcasting Service, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/goebbels-gallery.
During the war, German propaganda specifically sought to maintain widespread nationalism and support for the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei amongst German citizens through state-wide programs. One example of this goal can be seen in the work “Frau im Luftschutz!” created by Ludwig Hohlwein in 1936(see figure 1). Written in bolded, cursive lettering on poster paper, the party sought to garner the attention and support of Germany’s women through Hohlwein’s pro-Nazi image. His poster exemplifies the party’s desire to bring women directly into the war effort through various local subsets of the Reichsluftschutzbund, or National Air-Protection League, by commissioning artists like Hohlwein to create iconic images such as “Frau im Luftschutz!,” which translates to, “Women in Air-Raid Protection!” Through his concise yet effective language, Hohlwein intended to encourage a nationwide audience of German women to join the Luftschutz and further cement the importance of their role within the organization.
“Frau im Luftschutz!” also displays Hohlwein’s own personal beliefs. Holwein was born in 1874 in Wiesbaden, Kingdom of Prussia. Prussian-born Hohlwein initially worked as a poster artist based in the United States from the early 20th century until the mid-1920’s when he returned to his native country. Throughout the second World War, Hohlwein was a devout supporter of the Nazi party and worked closely alongside members of the Ministry of Propaganda and Enlightenment, which included Joseph Goebbels, the chief propagandist for the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei. Hohlwein’s incredibly nationalistic views are evident in this poster through his inclusion of the party’s swastika in the background. The poster’s sole female figure in full military dress demonstrates his intention to emphasize the importance of women’s contributions to protecting their fellow German citizens from imminent air-raid attacks. Furthermore, in order to persuade German women from all socioeconomic backgrounds to join, Hohlwein highlights his female figure’s cheerful expression to present the league as an honorable endeavor. Therefore by portraying the women of the Reichsluftschutzbund as happy, young, and attractive, Hohlwein and the Nazi party aimed to mass-mobilize German women into the war effort. In this poster, however, Hohlwein fails to suggest alternative ways for women to serve their nation in other capacities and chooses to focus solely on local organizations such as the Air-Raid Protection League.
Posters were a prescriptive form of propaganda through which the Nazi party sought to spread its party beliefs. The Nazi party’s posters promoted nationalism through the inclusion of idealized portrayals of German women as well as other citizens. Thus, Hohlwein’s poster reflects the values of Nazi elites who equated loyalty to the party with one’s loyalty to Germany, as well as his own belief that women should not only join programs such as the Reichsluftschutzbund, but also the party itself. Ultimately, propaganda art was a useful tool to spread the opinions of a smaller elite to the masses, in this case German women. By emphasizing his female figure’s youthful beauty, Hohlwein also aims to quell women’s fears of losing their femininity in joining organizations like the Luftschutz. Within his image, he also includes a number of subliminal messages. By portraying an ideal Aryan woman with minimal makeup, Hohlwein also perpetuates the Nazi stereotype of how the ideal German woman should look and act.
On the other hand, Hohlwein’s message was revolutionary for its time as its encouragement of working women went against the widely held values of “Kinder, Küche, Kirche,” which translates to “children, kitchen, church.” Prior to World War II, German society embraced the ideals of “Kinder, Küche, Kirche,” which signified that the affairs of women were limited to that of raising children, working in the kitchen, and attending church. Thus, by encouraging women to play a more active role in Germany’s war effort through joining military organizations, “Frau im Luftschutz” challenged these longstanding ideals of a woman’s place in German society.
Figure 2. Bradshaw Crandell, “Star-Spangled Heart,” 1943, print poster, United States Army, Toledo Library, https://www.toledolibrary.org/blog/wwii-propaganda-how-images-of-women-made-the-difference.
Comparatively, women in the United States were also encouraged through poster propaganda to join a number of military-run operations in order to aid the war effort. One such example of this type of propaganda can be seen in the poster “Are You a Girl with a Star-Spangled Heart?” created by Bradshaw Crandell in 1943(see figure 2). Similar to its German counterpart, “Frau im Luftschutz!,” this poster depicts a beautiful and young white woman in the uniform of the Women’s Army Corps Crandell placed the American flag in the background waving underneath the question, “Are You a Girl with a Star-Spangled Heart?” in the center of the poster. This artistic decision demonstrated his goal of invoking a sense of patriotism to encourage American women to move beyond their home responsibilities and join the Army. In direct contrast to Hohlwein’s portrayal of the ideal German woman, Crandell’s poster depicts the ideal American woman with bright red lipstick, which became symbolic of anti-Axis sentiment and American patriotism. His poster also stresses a sense of urgency much like Hohlwein’s Luftschutz poster and states, “Thousands of Army Jobs Need Filling!,” which urged women to join organizations such as the Army Corps as part of their civic duty as patriotic Americans. Thus, American government propaganda increasingly urged American women to engage in military organizations specifically created for them. Groups such as the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAC), Women Accepted for Emergency Volunteer Service (WAVES), and Women’s Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) were created during this time in hopes of garnering female support for the war.[ii]
Figure 3. U.S Public Health Service, “Become a Nurse,” 1943, print poster, Toledo Library, https://www.toledolibrary.org/blog/wwii-propaganda-how-images-of-women-made-the-difference.
Military operations enabled women to serve their country in several ways, the most prominent of which was becoming a nurse. Published in 1943 by the U.S. Public Health Service, the poster, “Become a Nurse,” is one such example of government efforts to mass mobilize women into the war effort(see figure 3). The image depicts Uncle Sam in patriotic attire crowning a smiling young woman with a nursing hat. Written in bolded lettering at the bottom of the image, the text of this poster explicitly states, “Become a Nurse. Your Country Needs You.” In order to counteract the increasing number of wounded soldiers, the military sponsored women to train as nurses and other medical professionals. This movement was incredibly successful in integrating over 350,000 women into the armed forces between 1941 and 1945 as it incentivized women through education and professional training.
Figure 4. J. Howard Miller, “Rosie the Riveter,” 1942, print poster, War Production Coordinating Committee, Toledo Library, https://www.toledolibrary.org/blog/wwii-propaganda-how-images-of-women-made-the-difference.
Throughout World War II, American women, like their German counterparts, were also encouraged to join the industrial sector to strengthen the country’s arms production. American women in wartime society were encouraged to “come out of their kitchens and move into the factories,” which went against the previously held ideas that women should remain confined within the domestic sphere. Images depicting women in factory work, such as the iconic Rosie The Riveter, were circulated throughout the United States to prove that women’s work in the defense industry was essential to American victory(see figure 4). Drawn by J. Howard Miller for distribution by the War Production Coordinating Committee, Rosie the Riveter symbolized an era of women’s empowerment and promoted the idea that women were capable of taking on previously male-dominated jobs.
Figure 5. Unknown artist, “This is Our War!,” 1943, print poster, National Archives and Records Administration, In American Experience, by Public Broadcasting Service, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/goebbels-gallery/.
Figure 6. Adolph Treidler, “She’s a WOW,” 1942, print poster, Toledo Library, https://www.toledolibrary.org/blog/wwii-propaganda-how-images-of-women-made-the-difference.
A similar example of promoting women in industry is demonstrated in the poster, “This is Our War!,” which depicts several women happily sewing heated flying suits for the American Air Force(see figure 5). The text asks, “Who said ‘This is a man’s war’? This is Our War!,” signifying that women’s contributions to the war effort were just as valuable as the men in combat. Similarly, Adolph Treidler’s 1942 poster, “She’s a WOW,” through its depiction of an American Woman Ordinance Worker alongside an artillery shell and various hats, represents the various organizations that encouraged women’s involvement in the war effort(see figure 6). His poster also stresses the significance of women’s roles in winning the war and exemplifies that women during World War II were entrusted with jobs as important as weapons production. Prior to World War II, women were viewed as intellectually and emotionally incapable of handling jobs in the public sphere. By breaking this stereotype of the overly emotional woman who could not handle a man’s work, women of both nations proved themselves capable of handling jobs crucial to the war, including the creation of planes, guns, and ammunition. Despite this change, many propaganda posters in both nations also encouraged women to support the war effort on the domestic front.
Figure 7. Unknown artist, “Heraus mit alten Spinnstoffen und Schuhen!,” 1943, print poster, German Propaganda Museum, In Homefront Propaganda in Germany and the U.S.A, by Public Broadcasting Service, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/goebbels-gallery/.
Figure 8. Unknown artist, “Kreistag der N.S.D.A.P,” 1941, print poster, German Propaganda Archive, In Homefront Propaganda in Germany and the U.S.A, Public Broadcasting Service, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/goebbels-gallery/.
Although American and German women made great progress in defying feminine stereotypes, propaganda detailing the ways in which women could aid their nation on the domestic front continued to circulate. In Germany, the underlying ideals of “Kinder, Küche, Kirche” remained prevalent in society despite many women serving in military organizations and factories. The 1943 German poster, “Get Rid of Old Cloth and Shoes!,” exemplifies this push for women in the home to do their part in helping their country by featuring an idyllic German woman happily donating her old clothing and shoes to support her nation(see figure 7). Campaigns that encouraged women at home to make personal sacrifices, such as donating clothing, shoes, and other textiles to be recycled and reused for the war effort were extremely successful. Those who continued to embody the traditional ideals of women in the home could still bring their country to victory. Thus, this poster’s message motivated women to also contribute from their own household. A similar message can be seen in the poster, “Kreistag der N.S.D.A.P.,” meaning “District Meeting of the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei”(see figure 8). This poster’s imagery includes a woman working on her family farm, while her husband is away fighting on the frontline. The propaganda ministry commissioned the poster to show German women in rural communities that even on the home front, they could contribute to wartime success by taking the previous responsibilities of male family members, including working on the family farm.
Figure 9. James Montgomery, “Will You Have a Part in Victory?,” 1918, print poster, National War Garden Commission, Toledo Library, https://www.toledolibrary.org/blog/wwii-propaganda-how-images-of-women-made-the-difference.
Figure 10. Dick Williams, “Of Course I Can!,” 1944, print poster, Toledo Library, https://www.toledolibrary.org/blog/wwii-propaganda-how-images-of-women-made-the-difference.
The role of American women in the domestic sphere during the second World War paralleled that of German women in several ways. American propaganda during this time played upon the stereotype of the American housewife and illustrated the ways in which women could support the war from their homes. One of the widely popular ways in which women were encouraged to do their part to support their country was with the growing of victory gardens. As shown in the poster, “Will You Have a Part in Victory?,” American women supported their nation by growing their own food in these victory gardens and received free booklets on how to garden, process, and preserve different fruits and vegetables(see figure 9.) The poster depicts a woman draped in the American flag walking through her own victory garden with the words “Every Garden a Munition Plant” underneath. By portraying those who grew victory gardens as patriotic, this poster encouraged American women to grow their own food in gardens at home in order to reserve larger produce for soldiers’ rations overseas. Therefore, reflecting the nationwide rationing campaigns that sought to procure and reserve foods necessary for these soldiers, the significance of women in the domestic sphere growing their own food is highlighted in posters such as “Every Garden a Munition Plant” and “Of Course I Can!” Wartime rationing defined American society in the 1940s and women at home were encouraged to follow strict rationing orders and maximize the produce from their victory gardens in the form of canning. By canning homegrown fruits and vegetables, American women were doing their part to save vital foods for soldiers overseas. “Of Course I Can!” in particular states, “I’m Patriotic As Can Be- And Ration Points Won’t Worry Me!,” pushing the narrative that patriotic American women who cared about their country did their part to conserve food through gardening and canning(see figure 10). This idealized version of the American housewife, which continued into the 1950s, flourished during the 1940s, where women took complete control of the household while the men were away. Thus, despite great strides in women’s empowerment in the workforce and military, their traditional roles within the domestic sphere still prevailed to great lengths during the second World War.
Throughout the war, women in both the public and private spheres played equally crucial roles in German and American military achievements. On the frontlines, women from both nations served diligently in various branches of the military. By serving their country, women proved their loyalty and dedication to the war effort through their military contributions. Unprecedented levels of women in the defense industry marked the beginning of changing gender roles as women filled jobs left vacant by millions of men who were deployed overseas. Women in both countries were crucial to weapons production and, thus, military victory. German and American propaganda equated nationalism and patriotism with involvement in the workforce or Armed Forces, which was an incredibly successful tactic. The American and German governments’ utilization of propaganda posters successfully mobilized millions of women eager to contribute to the war effort in some fashion. In Germany, women regularly ran clothing and shoe drives from which materials were recycled to create supplies for the military. American women on the home front aided the war effort in several ways, the most prominent being rationing. The popularization of Victory Gardens and preserving food to save crucial rations for the men overseas was a prominent theme in propaganda aimed at American women throughout the 1940s.
In both Germany and the United States, the variety of poster propaganda was incredibly effective and propelled millions of women into the war through industrial jobs, military operations, and even household campaigns. During World War II, the demands of an all-encompassing total war explain the similarities in American and German propaganda aimed towards female audiences as women on both sides were forced to abandon traditional gender norms in their efforts to mobilize. Their transition from the domestic sphere into the public sphere brought upon a revolution of sorts, mobilizing women in both nations to enter new roles and, thereby, challenging and changing the perpetuated gender norms of society for good.
However, this radical shift in gender dynamics did not last long. As waves of servicemen returned to the postwar workforce, the public sphere laid off women in mass numbers and a new type of postwar propaganda emerged. With fascism no longer perceived as a global threat, the drastic social shifts that government propaganda so effectively promoted during World War II quickly returned to pre-war gender dynamics. Advertisements depicting women as housewives and caretakers throughout the 1950s demonstrate how propaganda’s efficacy stems from its ability to adapt to a society’s constantly changing values.
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[i] Marc Miller, “Working Women and World War II,” The New England Quarterly 53, no. 1 (1980) 42.; “Women at Work in Nazi Germany,” History Learning Site, March 9, 2015.
[ii] Susan Mathis. “Propaganda to Mobilize Women for World War II.” Social Education. 58, no. 2 (1994): 94–96.