Photo of Marble “Double” Eye-Idol from Tell Asmar. Retrieved from, https://www.christies.com/en/lot/lot-4722440.
by Zornitsa Peeva
What is the window to the soul? The Mesopotamians believed it was the eyes. They believed the eye was the harbor of the soul, the creation of good and evil. To the Mesopotamians, the eye also connected the tangible nature of a human organ to the intangible concepts of spirituality and misfortune. In Mesopotamian art, the eye symbolizes a critical connection between the mortal and godly realms. It was a method for the positive or negative intentions of the gods to reach humans. Depending on the context, the eye could serve as a protective symbol which honors the good in the gods but it could also be a destructive symbol that warded off the evil of the very same gods. The origins of the “evil eye” are believed to be rooted in Ancient Mesopotamia. The symbolism of eyes in the art of Ancient Mesopotamia is tied to both piety and devotion as well as fear and destruction. Eyes acted as the bridge between the mortal and divine, between good and bad, and between the internal and external of an individual. With its overarching proliferation, the iconography of an eye has appeared on amulets, jewelry, idols, statues, pottery, cylinder seals, and many other objects with sacred value. All these threads weave together to establish the eye as a distinguished and formidable motif in Mesopotamian art.
For the general population in Ancient Mesopotamia, religion was an indisputably essential part of daily life and tradition. Religious ideals were highly dictated by the unknown and fears regarding the unknown. Thus, much of life in Ancient Mesopotamia was spent in a precarious balance of practicing devotion to the gods whilst simultaneously being deeply fearful of the gods.[1] In the Mesopotamian worldview, all the phenomena of the world were acts of the gods. One had to be in awe of the love and beauty that the gods created but also fearful of the wrath that they could inflict upon mortals. In Mesopotamian mythology, the eyes of gods were supernatural compared to those of mortals. The eyes of an important member of the Mesopotamian pantheon could be perceived as arbiters of justice and all-seeing.[2] Solely depicting the eye of a god could represent the whole god, including all of which the god represents.[3] This was especially true for the sky god An, the moon gods Sin and Nanna, the air and earth god Enlil, the water god Enki, and in the later periods, the patron god of Babylon, Marduk.[4] For the Mesopotamians, it was the eye that bound the divine realm to the mortal world.
Although the Mesopotamian gods were based on the human image, all of the gods seemed to have an amplified quality to their eyes and vision. An, Enki, and Marduk were all referenced as all-seeing gods “from whom none can escape.” [5] Similarly, Enlil was described as possessing an eye that unceasingly “scans the land” and Enki was described as the god with a “gleaming eye.”[6] Throughout every hour of the day there was a god keeping watch on the mortal world, with Shamash, the sun god, being the daytime eye. Meanwhile the moon god Sin, was the nighttime eye.[7] Marduk was particularly unsettling and described as having four eyes in some texts, seeing twice as much as the other gods saw.[8] The concept of four eyes could be of value because the universe was described as the “four quarters” or the “four winds,” coming from the division of the four cardinal points. A god with four eyes could perhaps see into each of the four quarters which is associated with the concept of unity and wholeness. In art, having duplicated or multiple eyes and the rejection of naturally “human” eyes were associated with divinity which could be because the ancient people were afraid to depict the gods in their own image.[9] Clearly, in Mesopotamian mythology there is a universal comfort but also fear of being perceived or watched by the gods. The eye simply intertwines the connection between the comfort and fear of being watched. The enhanced vision that the gods had was a clear supernatural talent that the gods had over humans because vision was a sense that was heightened in deities compared to mortals. The eye of a god was especially crucial because it is one method in which the gods have more power over humans. This belief emphasizes the importance of eyes to the gods which makes the eye a strong theme in religion.
The eye of a god is strongly associated with positivity, love, and protection in ancient Mesopotamia. In many ways, it was necessary to seek out the gaze of the gods and to revolve your life around their satisfaction for fear of the consequences of not doing so. Written records also show that the eyes of the gods were associated with romantic affection with many noted romantic interactions between the gods themselves. For instance, there is one legend in which the god Enlil, in disguise, seduces the goddess Ninlil with his “bright eye” causing her to then birth several other gods.[10] The reference to his eye helps picture Enlil’s gaze as a key element in the seduction of Ninlil because without his “bright eye,” it is possible that his romantic advances would not have succeeded in the same way. The Mesopotamians intentionally made it a significant detail to mention the god’s eyes in a moment of affection. The inspiration for this detail undoubtedly came from the way humans might court each other with the help of gazes and glances. Eye contact is a crucial human behavior, which is one of the reasons why the Mesopotamian gave the same trait to their gods.
Another way that the eye can be positive is in association with “giving life” in reference to the gods. Many mother goddesses, like Ninhursag are described as having the “eye of life” in different legends and dire consequences occur when they take their life-giving glance away.[11] When the mother of the god Ninurta looks at him, he is described as looking at his mother with the “eye of life.”[12] The very human feeling of motherly love is present all through the animal kingdom, so it is no surprise that these instinctual material qualities have been preserved for millions of years. In addition to motherly love, the love that a child has for their mother is universally felt as one of the most powerful forms of love. Linking the theme of an “eye” to giving life and maternal love is no accident. The eye can be a passionate vessel for the transfer of love between individuals, further establishing its importance as a means for good.
In iconography, the motif of an eye has been noted as early as the Epipaleolithic and Neolithic periods of prehistory, having traversed many different mediums and shapes in the material culture that one might find from Mesopotamia. The first definitive eye decorations uncovered to date were found on pottery from the Hassuna period and continuing through the Halaf period, Jamet Nasr period, and far beyond.[13] Aside from pottery, the eyes of figurines, idols, and statuettes from this culture have a variety of unique eye shapes. Some have “coffee-bean”-like slit eyes like those from Ur, some eyes were starkly outlined with bitumen like the ones from Ain Ghazal, and some simply have very large exaggerated eyes like the statues from Tell Asmar or Tell Brak.[14] In addition, many different objects that scholars call “eye stones” were uncovered from the Akkadians to the Kassites and Neo-Assyrians, usually made of onyx and agate and with the names of royals and dedication to certain gods inscribed into them.[15] At the royal cemetery of Ur, the gaming board found in one of the tombs is also believed to have eyes as particular symbols on it, greatly resembling the same symbols on the eye temple in Tell Brak.[16] Also at Ur, eye designs were present on the front of a lyre, on models of animals pulling chariots, and engraved into wooden boxes.[17] The ones that will be discussed in detail, though, are figures and statues that have particularly extreme emphasis on the eyes. The common thread between all of these objects points to the fact that the eye was a very popular and universal theme in Mesopotamian art.
Figure 1: Frankfort, “Stratified Cylinders”, in “Stratified Cylinder Seals from the Diyala Region”, OIP 72. (Chicago: Oriental Institute Publications, 1955):, from top left to bottom: plate 18(no. 188), plate 12(no.97), and plate 34 (no. 347).
One set of objects that distinctly displays the diversity and influence of the eye motif are cylinder seals. The eye motif on cylinder seals had been in constant circulation from the prehistoric Epi-Paleolithic and Neolithic periods to the tail end of the Assyrian empire in ancient Mesopotamia.[18] The height of eye popularity on cylinder seals was from the Jamet Nasr period to the Early Dynastic II period, and the eye symbol predominates above all other symbols during the Jamet Nasr period.[19] The eye symbol was often carved into cylinder seals in rhombus-like or “lozenge” icons that could be solitary or linked into a pattern (see Figure 1).[20] An interesting idea that one scholar pointed out is that the triangle that has typically been identified as a symbol for the female pubic area but could just as easily have represented an eye instead.[21] As seen in mythology, both symbols are associated with love, life, and fertility. The protective nature of the gods could be invoked with a triangle or rhombus shape, meant to resemble the eye of the gods. This is one way in which the “eye of love” or the “eye of life” that the gods possessed was translated from mythology into iconography.
The depiction of eyes on cylinder seals is protective. The eye-like rhombus symbol would serve as a protective guarantee of the ever-watchful of the gods that would protect hunters and herders alike, both kings and their subjects.[22] The association of eyes with gods could mean that during these periods the ancient people felt an especially strong presence of the gods in their lives. One of the most important ways that rhombus-like eyes were shown in these seals was side by side with a ladder-like design.[23] The interpretation of this symbolism could be that the eyes worked as ladders between the mortal humans and their divine gods. This could reflect a growing closeness between people and deities in their period, and points to how the eye acts as a ladder between the mortals and the deities. The ladder and eye symbols together exhibit the overriding idea that their eyes are a means for connection. Additionally, as the Jamet Nasr period came to an end, the symbol of two eyes became more stylized.[24] This could reflect the changes coming about at the end of the period regarding the shift from a prehistoric to historic way of life around 3000 BC and all the aftermath of the urban revolution. Eyes are an extensively important symbol in cylinder seals because they could reflect the connection between humans and gods and the connection between different periods of time, bridging the end of one period to the beginning of another.
TELL BRAK
Figure 2. Various Eye-Idols from Tell Brak. Uruk Period, circa 3500-3300 BC. Sculpture: incised Syrian marble. Photographs from Christie’s. Top Left Photograph: Live auction Lot 35, June 8th, 2005. Top Right Photograph: Live auction 1446, lot 389, December 10th, 2004. Bottom Left Photograph: Live auction 1314, lot 97, December 11th, 2003. Bottom Right Photograph: Live auction 1679, lot 47, June 16th, 2006.
One site that is very prolific in its obsession with eyes is Tell Brak. Tell Brak dates back from the Jamet Nasr period which ranges from 3100 to 2900 BC.[25] The vast discovery of “eye idols,” as they are commonly referred to at this site, are fascinating for a number of reasons (see Figure 2).[26] Over 300 idols were found intact, all carved from alabaster, comprised of one or several human-like figures with humongous exaggerated eyes.[27] Nearly all of the idols share a few common characteristics. White alabaster was the favored material to carve them from but black alabaster ones were also discovered.[28] Usually, the idols are supported by a prominent trapezoidal body, standing on a wide flat base which is complemented by a slightly more tapered top edge that gives the figure an overall triangular appearance. The top two edges of the trapezoidal body are smoothed to create what appears to be the shoulders of the figure. Between the sloped shoulders, there is usually a carved incision that gives the impression of clothing, separating the body from the neck. Sometimes the body is decorated with wave-like patterns as well that mimic clothing decorations and some appear to have hats. The neck is also a common element in all of the Tell Brak idols. Finally, at the very top of the figure, resting on the neck is usually a set of eyes, resembling an infinity symbol with their rounded quality, close together. There are no other facial features besides the eyes, which are dotted with pupils and are crowned with a set of connected eyebrows. Most of the idols had two eyes, but some of them had up to six. Some appeared to consist of two connected bodies, or one larger body and one smaller body carved on top.
The context the idols were found in spurred several theories on their significance. The main archeologist working to excavate Tell Brak from 1937-1938 was Max Mallowan and he noted that they were found in the “Eye Temple” of Tell Brak, lying on top of a podium, which was a notable religious site at its height.[29] Mallowan then proposed several theories on what their ritualistic significance may be. It is believed that the main god worshipped at the temple was Enki, the masculine water and earth god.[30] Since a stag, the symbol of Ninhursag, was also found in the temple, this suggests that the “earth” mother goddess was also worshipped.[31] Since the male and female versions of an “earth” god were present, Mallowan postulated that the white alabaster idols represented the masculine and were tied to Enki, while the black alabaster idols represented the feminine and were tied to Ninhursag.[32] Thus, the color of the alabaster made it a site where both gods were worshipped in tandem leading Mallowan to conclude that the idols with four eyes represented both the male and female elements of earth tied together. Enki was probably the prime god, though, because there are much more white alabaster idols than black ones.[33] The other theories include that the smaller body included in some of the idols represents a child, while the ones with two connected bodies of the same size may represent a male and female couple.[34] Overall, the presence of “earth” and fertility gods go hand in hand with the imagery of offspring and reproduction that the idols may be trying to convey.[35] However, an idol with four eyes is not dissimilar to the way the god Marduk would be described in the future, also possessing four eyes. It is possible that the idols with four eyes represented divinity or the concept of the “four quarters” of the universe. It can be agreed upon that the idols indubitably held a spiritual function and served an important role in the worship of the gods.
The eyes were the central focal point of the idols. The incisions, inlaying, and even painting of the eyes underscores the eyes’ importance on these idols.[36] Many of the idols also have traces of red, green, and black pigments that were painted on the eye portion of the figures.[37] Several of the eye idols also have holes in them, suggesting that a string was threaded through to make them wearable as charms to ward off the evil eye.[38] By being an “evil eye” themselves, the eye idols use their magic to ward off the magic of other evil eyes.[39] They are intentionally anthropomorphic because there is a plethora of evidence that the artists of this period and nearby locations were capable of depicting naturalistically detailed human form.[40] Max Mallowan also theorized that the eyes represented the omnipotence of the eye god that the eye temple was dedicated to and the concept of being watched over, both figuratively and literally.[41] The mysteries behind these idols provide little context other than the fact that the eyes were of paramount importance to the worshippers of the temple who believed that the eyes of the idols would somehow protect them from harm. Similar to the cylinder seals, the eye idols couple the realms of the earth and the heavens together, two seemingly non-crossing areas– all revolving around the crux of the eye symbolism.
TELL ASMAR
Figure 3. Votive Statuettes from Tell Asmar. Early Dynastic I-II Period, circa 2900-2600 BCE. Sculpture: limestone, gypsum, alabaster; inlaid with shell, black limestone, and lapis lazuli, Height of tallest figure: 28.5 in. (72.3 cm). Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures West Asia & North Africa, Chicago, USA;
The statues of human figures found at Tell Asmar have captivated the attention of ordinary viewers and scholars alike with their oversized eyes as they offer a glimpse into the practices of worshippers (see Figure 3). In a temple dedicated presumably to the god Abu, twelve humanoid statues were found neatly arranged in a hole by the altar, ranging from approximately 20-70 cm in height, two appearing to be female and ten appearing to be male.[42] They were most likely stacked underground in such an organized manner by the priests whose job it was to bury old or damaged statues in place of new ones.[43] Eight of the statues were mostly made of gypsum but limestone and alabaster were used for three of them and bitumen was utilized to inlaid the eyes with white shell and black limestone, with one having lapis lazuli eyes.[44] Almost all of the statues stand in an upright pose on a circular base on sturdy feet. They have squared shoulders and their arms are folded with their small hands clasped close up to their chest. Some even have what appears to be a cup clutched in their hands. The bases of some of the statutes are inscribed with names of individuals or with the epithet, “one who offers prayers.” [45] They are dressed in typical clothing from the Early Dynastic I period from which they are dated to, consisting of a below-the-knee fleece kaunakes lower half paired with a bare chest for men, and a long ankle-length, one-shouldered tunic for women with a draped shawl.[46] As for their heads, most of the men have a long, dark, squared, elegantly coiled beard that matches the hair on their head. The women also have a slicked-back hairstyle that finishes in a bun at the back. Their facial features are well-defined with a very subtle smile on their small mouths, pointed triangular noses, and most conspicuous of all, their tremendously large, round, staring eyes accompanied by a pair of joined eyebrows.
The two largest statues, one male and one female, have garnered an astounding number of theories surrounding their purpose and meaning. The first main theory is that the largest male statue represents the god Abu himself, and the largest female statue is a mother goddess because of the remains of a once-standing child’s feet by her side.[47] It has been noted before that gods themselves are often depicted with large, staring eyes since the eyes of gods are accepted to hold unquestionable power. However, many experts think that supernatural entities weren’t the only ones to have extremely exaggerated eyes with pointed edges, inlaid irises, and conjoined eyebrows done in negative relief; ordinary men and kings were also depicted with the same features.[48] Furthermore, the absence of the horned helmets of the gods on the head of these statues in particular makes the theory that they represent gods somewhat falter.[49] The most widely accepted theory is that these statues are votive in purpose, meaning that they are meant to embody a mortal worshiper who has commissioned a statue of themselves to be made and placed in the temple as a way to be in eternal prayer before their great god.[50] The positioning of clasped hands on all of the statues is universally acknowledged among scholars to be a gesture of prayer and devotion, along with the cups in their hands which could be part of a ritual, such as a toast, an offering, or a libation.[51] Whether these mortal worshippers were priests or priestesses to the gods or elite aristocrats with enough status and resources to commission the statues made, it is hard to say. But we do know that priests were typically bald and beardless, so the theory that they are part of the clergy seems to lose some value. Regardless of who these statues depicted, it is evident that they were deeply devoted to their gods and seemed to partake regularly in worship.
Finally, the most entrancing part of the statues are their enormous eyes, complete with dilated, dark pupils. Large hypnotizing eyes are not unique to just the Tell Asmar statues but are also seen in a set of statues from the ancient city of Mari dating to the Early Dynastic III period, complete with the same clasped hands and extremely similar garments.[52] Not only are the eyes huge in proportion to the rest of the face but they are inlaid with extra materials, ones that are very difficult to obtain. Both the shells and lapis lazuli materials needed to construct the eyes had to be imported over large distances. The blue lapis lazuli stone in particular is of extremely high importance because it is considered to be apotropaic, warding off evil.[53] The reason that lapis lazuli was inlaid into the eyes of so many religious statues was because it was believed that objects of a blue color in particular would drive away the evil eye.[54] Blue is one of the rarest colors to encounter on a physical level in nature, with lapis lazuli or the “blue stone” being one of the rarest naturally occurring and long lasting sources of blue. Lapis lazuli was very difficult to procure in ancient Mesopotamia, mined only from a particular location in the Badakhshan mountains of present-day Afghanistan and then needed to travel long distances to reach the main cities. Because of all these factors, lapis lazuli was considered one of the most precious stones in Mesopotamian culture and was only in the possession of the richest elite individuals of society, namely royalty. The fact that their statues were inlaid with lapis lazuli, and that its location of choice was in the eyes shows just how essential the role of eyes was in Mesopotamian art and religion. It was the eyes that warded off evil and that had the rarest and most expensive material inlaid in them.
How the eye was depicted in Mesopotamian art is also significant. One of the most prominent scholars in the field, Irene Winter, posits that the eyes are so exaggerated as to encapsulate the utter devotion that the worshippers have for their god in physical form.[55] Many scholars agree that it was also important whether the eye was open or semi-closed in iconography. A wide-open eye was associated with power and extending one’s soul outwards into the universe while a half-lidded eye was associated with withdrawing the soul inwards into oneself.[56] If a mortal worshiper wanted to make the commitment to their god known, their wide-open eyes could convey the projection of their soul outward, attempting to reach their mortal soul towards their divine beliefs. There is a sense of awe so powerful in the eyes of these statues that no physical clue could possibly encapsulate the depth of it. The mortal eye joins the soul that resides inside a person and the soul that is projected outside the person. The eyes offer an extension of the soul and facilitate a certain spiritual connection between the mortal realm and spiritual realm that is bridged.
EVIL EYE
The origins of the “evil eye” are theorized to come from ancient Mesopotamia and are even thought to be prehistoric. The oldest mentions of the “evil eye” date back to ancient Sumer around 3000 BC.[57] The notion of the evil eye is quite simple. It is the stark opposite of the benevolent “eye of love” and devotion that gods and mortals have for each other. It was believed that a single malevolent glance could secure someone’s doomed fate, bringing illnesses, injuries, and even death. Not only could it affect the individual themselves, but also the assets of the person, destroying their livestock, crops, and causing environmental havoc like droughts or floods.[58] These evil glances could come from mal-wishing people, animals, mythological creatures, and of course, the gods.[59] It was also said that evil spirits could enter and exit through the eyes.[60] A similar concept of a piercing gaze is universal throughout all human cultures.[61] Yet, the dualist nature of the evil eye is that it could cause harm if one were the target of its gaze but it could also protect someone if they were behind its gaze. The evil eye does not purely inflict evil but could also be a potent tool to ward off evil. The evil eye has always seemed to have an inherent apotropaic quality to it, even as far back as 6000 BC when plastered skulls’ eyes were inlaid with foreign cowrie shells in Jericho.[62] The apotropaic nature of the evil eye is based on the elementary concept that “like repels like.”[63] A strong negative intention will overpower a weaker negative intention. Many scholars believe that the ancient Mesopotamians focused more on the evil or negative results that the evil eye could bring about than the positive ones, although both did exist together. The evil eye is still prevalent today, holding onto its strong ancient ties in the Middle East and has expanded to surrounding regions. Contemporarily, it is still popular to wear an evil eye charm or hang its icon in your home for protection. As seen through contemporary and Mesopotamian material culture, the eye fulfills a dual role where it joins the opposite intentions of security and destruction all in one symbol.
The causes of misfortunes like illnesses were completely unknown to Mesopotamians and so they often turned to magicians to cure them of their ailments. The healer-magicians attributed the causes of misfortunes to supernatural sources, even believing that vision itself and the ability to see came from supernatural sources.[64] An abundance of ancient Mesopotamian texts include certain spells and incantations that were meant to ward off the evil eye. Evil glances could come from “accidental” origins like those from divine or other otherworldly beings but other evil glances could be entirely deliberate, coming from a fellow mortal.[65] These intentional evil glances were attributed to the overall practice of “witchcraft.” [66] The only way to fend off a malevolent form of magic like this was to fight it off with an even stronger magic.[67] The evil eye was believed to act separately from the owner of the eye, having its own volition for malevolence.[68] The prominence of the evil eye may have been tied to the fear of abnormal eyes or that the gaze of an individual held some sort of special significance or interest and be the source of a variety of negative results.
The eyes of gods and goddesses of ancient Mesopotamia have an immense amount of power that can cause widespread destruction and death. In ancient literature and different texts relating to mythology, there have been references to the scale of despair that the divinity can bring about just from their eyes. The sky god, An, created the evil spirits that we would consider demons and therefore created all of the destruction that these demons could unleash onto humanity.[69] Countless disasters that humans encountered, from natural disasters to property damage to death were believed to be the work of the evil eyes of the demons.[70] Evil demons weren’t the only ones capable of harming the lives of humans. Drastic and large-scale disasters could originate from the glances of the gods themselves. For example, it was said that the great flood of Eridu was brought about by the “baleful glance” of the god Enlil.[71] Similarly, it was said the very flesh of an enemy could be ripped apart by the eye of the goddess Ninisina.[72] The most prime gods like Enki and Inanna had numerous references of their eyes or their glances causing catastrophes. Just as the eyes of gods could be loving and life-giving, the ancient Mesopotamians were well aware that their eyes could also be hateful and furious. Even in religion, the eye is the swinging pendulum that dictates the pure and evil intentions of the gods.
In ancient Mesopotamian literature, the eye or “igi” as it was called in ancient Sumerian and Akkadian held many references in literature with nearly every part of the eye having a defined word from the eyelid or “wing” of the eye to the eyelashes, pupil, and iris.[73] There were also words for different ways to look with your eyes like we do in English with “inspected,” “glanced,” or “observed” all having different meanings even though all are done with the eye.[74] In ancient Mesopotamia, it was also noted that the “igi” or eye was the sense at the top of the hierarchy for gathering knowledge.[75] Oftentimes, the eye is described as “red,” or is written about in association with a “red snake.” [76] This description can serve two main purposes in congruence to the evil eye. Firstly, it associates a red eye with extreme fury and offers a physical projection for the emotional state that a deity might embody in that moment.[77] Secondly, the redness of an eye can be reminiscent of fire and therefore give the term “burning gaze” a literal meaning where fiery heat damage is done to harm whatever or whoever is unfortunate enough to be in the gaze of the deity.
The ways that the negative effects of the evil eye could be reversed were numerous. The first line of protective measure was likely incantations or prayers that would remove the effect of the evil eye from a person, and sometimes even transfer it onto animals like a goat or sheep instead.[78] Rituals were also seemingly helpful and could involve anything from libations of beer, burning incense, cleaning the body with bread, or repeating words or phrases three times over.[79] In addition to these rituals, the victim of the evil eye could also use certain herbs and oils to ward off any evil eye in the future. The most important practice was the use of amulets or protective charms worn or carried on the person to ward off the evil eye or any evil spirits for that matter.[80] It would even help greatly if the charms were multicolored because evil spirits were said to be averted and frustrated by colors like red and blue.[81] Red for demons, and blue for the evil eye.
Figure 4. J. N. Postgate, Photograph of a silver-eye patch, 1978, in “Excavations at Abu Salabikh, 1978-79,” Iraq, vol. 42, no. 2(1980), 95.
One particularly fascinating object of interest in the matter of warding off evil spirits is a silver eyepatch coming from the site of Abu Salabikh during the Early Dynastic period (see Figure 4). The eye patch was found in a grave over the left eye of a child’s skeleton and was incised with the outline of an eye with a pupil, meant to match and cover the shape of the human eye underneath.[82] It was associated with the protection of the god, Sin, and followed in the belief that placing metal on a body would repel any evil demons or even the ghost of the deceased person from entering it.[83] It was believed that the spirits of the dead could reanimate their deceased bodies if they weren’t properly guided to the afterlife.[84] By repelling the ghost from the body of the deceased, the evil eye symbol on the eyepatch ensures that the ghost will find its way to the afterlife and simultaneously it protects the ghost from the demons.[85] The evil eye holds a very unique ambivalent purpose as it scares the malevolent spirits trying to harm the lifeless person’s spirit and body while also guiding the ghost of the dead to their peaceful resting place. It is evident that the evil eye symbol has both special significance for the living and for the dead by protecting the good and scaring the bad, once again bringing together two seemingly opposite notions.
The eyes are a significant mediatory symbol in ancient Mesopotamia art. Each discussed iconographic piece shows that it was the eye that brought together two aspects of life that may appear contradictory. On cylinder seals, the subtle changes in the style of rhombus-like eye and the symbols it is placed beside can mirror the changes that the civilization was facing. It could join the end of an era with the beginning of another and join mortals with divinity. Depicting the eye was a method for which people processed and understood large scale changes occurring in their world. The Tell Brak and the Tell Asmar statues prove that the eye had an insurmountable role in spirituality and religion. The eyes of votive objects showcased the ever-present fear that humans felt before their gods and the purest devotion and admiration that they had for them, too. Meanwhile, the evil eye symbol could unleash harm and devastation to those in its path but also fiercely protect those using it as a shield. In Mesopotamia, the eyes of gods and men alike were associated with the strongest forms of hate and devastation but also with the strongest forms of compassion and love. Either way, the eyes deliver the inner emotions of people into the outside world for all to see. The eyes link the seemingly impossible: earthly and the heavenly, protection and destruction, and the exterior facade of a person and the internal passions and nuances of the soul.
The eye is a ubiquitous and powerful symbol throughout history. Artists used the eye to convey meaning from Greek pottery to Medieval manuscript to Renaissance painting. The Mesopotamians were one of the first ancient civilizations to recognize and implement the eye as a motif in their material culture as it held great significance in their religion and beliefs. It is essential to recognize the origins of Mesopotamian concepts such as the evil eye which have persisted through time and are still in use thousands of years later. This study on Mesopotamian eyes reveals that the eye can symbolize multiple meanings that are even contradictory, thus scholars should carefully analyze the role of eyes when examining the art of other cultures and time periods. The eyes are hard to decipher, which is why eyes have continued to entrance and enthrall us for as long as humans have been alive. It takes time and patience to perceive the inner secrets of another, but our eyes nevertheless spur us to share in each other’s feelings and in our universal human experience. The eye is the bridge, the connection, and unifier that has helped us understand the world before us and to understand ourselves.
Endnotes
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[1] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” PhD diss., (Wilfrid Laurier University 1988) 13.
[2] Yeşim Dilek, “Eye Symbolism and Dualism in the Ancient Near East: Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Israel,”
Turkish Journal of History, vol. 0, no. 74(2021), 2-3.
[3] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 88.
[4] Dilek, “Eye Symbolism and Dualism in the Ancient Near East,” 2-3.
[5] Inass Mostafa Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” Bulletin of The Center for Papyrological Studies, vol. 39, no. 1 (2022), 137-139.
[6] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 138.
[7] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 138.
[8] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 139; Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 40-41.
[9] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 47, 54.
[10] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 139
[11] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 139
[12] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 139
[13] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 141-142.
[14] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 82.
[15] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 148-149.
[16] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 149.
[17] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 150.
[18] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 55-57.
[19] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 57-58.
[20] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 142-143.
[21] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 142.
[22] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 142-143.
[23] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 57.
[24] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,”58.
[25] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 57.
[26] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 57.
[27] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 70-71.
[28] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 70-72.
[29] Rakic, “Discovering the Art of the Ancient Near East,” 45.
[30] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 73-74.
[31] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 73.
[32] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 73-74.
[33] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 70-74.
[34] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 70-74.
[35] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 70-74.
[36] Peter Fingesten, “Sight and Insight: A Contribution Toward An Iconography of the Eye,” Criticism, vol. 1, no. 1(1959), 23.
[37] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 146.
[38] Fingesten, “Sight and Insight: A Contribution Toward An Iconography of the Eye,” 24.
[39] Fingesten, “Sight and Insight: A Contribution Toward An Iconography of the Eye,” 24.
[40] Arabella Cooper, The Eyes Have It -Study of the Tell Brak Eye Idols in the 4th Millennium BCE: with a primary focus on function and meaning, (Sydney: University of Sydney, 2016), 30.
[41] Cooper, The Eyes Have It -Study of the Tell Brak Eye Idols in the 4th Millennium BCE, 84.
[42] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 144.
[43] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 144.
[44] Henri Frankfort, Sculpture of the Third Millennium B.C. from Tell Asmar and Khafajah, (Chicago: Oriental Institute Publications, 1939), 57-59.
[45] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 145.
[46] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 145.
[47] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 145.
[48] Fingesten, “Sight and Insight: A Contribution Toward An Iconography of the Eye,” 25.
[49] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 145.
[50] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 145.
[51] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 145.
[52] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 146.
[53] Zacharias Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” Asian and African Studies, vol 26, no. 1(2017), 3.
[54] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 152.
[55] Irene Winter, On Art in the Ancient Near East, Vol.II: From the Third Millennium BC., (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 36.
[56] Fingesten, “Sight and Insight: A Contribution Toward An Iconography of the Eye,” 25.
[57] Dilek, “Eye Symbolism and Dualism in the Ancient Near East,” 2-3.
[58] Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” 1-4.
[59] Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” 1.
[60] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 38-39.
[61] Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” 2.
[62] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 82.
[63] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 83.
[64] Fingesten, “Sight and Insight: A Contribution Toward An Iconography of the Eye,” 25.
[65] Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” 7.
[66] Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” 7.
[67] Fingesten, “Sight and Insight: A Contribution Toward An Iconography of the Eye,” 24.
[68] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 151.
[69] Dilek, “Eye Symbolism and Dualism in the Ancient Near East,” 2-3. .
[70] Dilek, “Eye Symbolism and Dualism in the Ancient Near East,” 2-3.
[71] Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” 9.
[72] Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” 11.
[73] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 136.
[74] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 137.
[75] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 137.
[76] Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” 3.
[77] Kotze, “The Evil Eye of Sumerian Deities,” 11.
[78] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 152.
[79] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 152.
[80] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 152.
[81] Abd El Mohsen, “When Their Eyes Speak: A Study of the Eye Symbol in Mesopotamia,” 152.
[82] J. N. Postgate, “Excavations at Abu Salabikh, 1978-79,” Iraq, vol. 42, no. 2(1980), 94-95.
[83] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 94.
[84] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 94.
[85] Seawright, “The Symbolism of the Eye in Mesopotamia and Israel,” 94.